MASTER 
NEGA  TIVE 
NO.  92-81074 


MICROFILMED  1993 
COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES/NEW  YORK 


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AUTHOR: 


DU  PONTET,  CLEMENT 


TITLE: 


ANCIENT  WORLD,  A 
STORICAL  SKETCH 


PLACE: 


NEW  YORK;  LONDON 


DATE: 


[1912] 


COLUMBIA  UNIVERSITY  LIBRARIES 
PRESERVATION  DEPARTMENT 

BIBLIOGRAPHIC  MICROFORM  TARHFT 


Master  Negative  # 


Original  Material  as  Filmed  -  Existing  Bibliographic  Record 


glS' 


Du  Pontet,  Clement.  ' 

ThP  ancient  world,  a  historical  sketch,  by  Clement  Du 
Po^St        With  map's.    New  York,  Longmans,  Green  and 

CO. ;  London,  E.  Arnold  [1912]  ' 

xi,  388  p.    maps.    19"". 


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1.  History,  Ancient         i.  Title. 

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THE   ANCIENT   WORLD 

A    HISTORICAL   SKETCH 


} 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


A  HISTORICAL  SKETCH 


BY 


CLEMENT   DU   PONTET,   M.A, 

ASSISTANT   MASTER  AT  HARROW  SCHOOL 


WITH   MAPS 


NEW   YORK 

LONGMANS,    GREEN,    AND    CO. 

LONDON  :   EDWARD   ARNOLD 


J^H    §    'IS 


-1 


PREFACE 

This  little  volume  does  not  pretend  to  be  a  general  book 
of  reference.  It  is,  as  its  title-page  proclaims,  merely  a 
sketch,  is  addressed  primarily  to  schoolboys,  and  is 
meant  to  serve  as  an  introduction  to  the  subject.  It 
does  not  deal  in  minute  investigations  and  arguments, 
or  new  solutions  of  old  conundrums.  Its  aim  is  rather, 
while  avoiding  excessive  detail,  to  emphasize  the  main 
outlines,  and  to  be  interesting  rather  than  exhaustive, 
refusing  to  strip  the  old  stories  of  their  romantic  and 
picturesque  elements.  If  it  succeeds  in  any  measure 
in  attracting  young  minds  and  tempting  them  to  further 
study,  it  will  not  have  been  written  in  vain. 

Experience  of  both  learning  and  teaching  shows  that 
it  is  fatally  easy  to  lose  sight  of  the  wood  for  the  trees. 
In  stopping  to  examine  microscopically  the  details  of  a 
single  tree  or  group  of  trees,  we  may  lose  our  bearings 
and  sense  of  direction.  The  aim  of  this  sketch  is  to 
correct  this  tendency,  to  lift  the  explorer  above  the  trees, 
and  show  him  the  Hmits  and  general  outline  of  the 
forest  and  what  rivers  and  lakes,  pleasant  glades  and 
noble  peaks  it  encloses. 

My  most  grateful  thanks  are  due  to  the  authors, 
publishers,  or  other  copyright-owners,  of  the  following 
works,  to  which  detailed  references  will  be  found  in  the 
footnotes :— *'  The  Oldest  Code  of  Laws  in  the  World," 


VI 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


1 


\ 


by  Mr.  C.  H.  W.  Johns  (T.  &  T.  Clark) ;  '*  The  Life  and 

Times  of  Akhnaton,  Pharaoh  of  Egypt,"  by  Mr.  A.  E.  P. 

Weigall  (W.  Blackwood  &  Sons) ;  ''  Ten  Years'  Digging 

in  Egypt"  (R.T.S.),  "  Egypt  and  Israel"  (S.P.C.K.),  and 

"  Egyptian  Tales  "   (Methuen  &  Co.),  all  by  Professor 

W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie ;  "  The  Dwellers  on  the  Nile,"  by 

Dr.  E.  A.  WaUis  Budge  (R.T.S.) ;  "  The  Law  and  the 

Prophets,"  by  Professor  Westphal,  translated  by  myself 

(Macmillan  &  Co.);  "The  Dawn  of  Civilization"  and 

"  The  Struggle  of  the  Nations "  by  Professor  Maspero 

(S.P.C.K.) ;   "  New  Light  on  the  Story  of  the  Flood," 

by    Rev.   J.   O'F.   Willcocks   (Proprietors   of    Pearson's 

Magazine) ;  "  Records  of  the  Past,"  Vol.  II.  (S.  Bagster 

&  Sons) ;  '^  A  Book  of  Greek  Verse,"  by  Dr.  W.  Headlam 

(Cambridge  University  Press)  ;  "  Sophocles  in  EngHsh 

Verse,"  by    Professor    Lewis    Campbell    (The    World's 

Classics,    Frowde),   by  permission    of    Mrs.  Campbell; 

''  The  Dramas  of  Aeschylus,"  by  Miss  Anna  Swanwick 

(George  Bell  &  Sons) ;  "  The  Athenian  Drama,"  Vol.  III., 

by  Professor    Gilbert   Murray  (George    Allen  &  Co.) ; 

*' Agamemnon  of  Aeschylus,"  by  E.  FitzGerald,  by  per- 

mission  of  Dr.  Aldis  Wright  and  Messrs.  Macmillan  &  Co. ; 

and    "The     Earthly    Paradise,"    by    William     Morris 

(Longmans,  Green  &  Co.) 

C.  Du  P. 

1012. 


CHAPTER 
I. 

II. 

III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 


CONTENTS 

PAGE 

The  Pyramids 1 

The  Euphrates  Country 22 

The  Age  of  the  Patriarchs 38 

A  Philosopher-King 59 

Forgotten  Empires        .        .         .        .        .        .'  73 

The  Ancient  East  :  Far  and  Near      ...  84 

A  New  Nation 99 

The  Trojan  War 116 

The  Dorians  and  the  Dawn  of  Greek  History  141 

Westward  Ho  I 155 

The  Tyrants 171 

The  Lawgivers 188 

The  Unchanging  East 202 

The  Persian  Wars— Greece  saves  Europe  •       .  225 

The  Peloponnesian  War 246 

A  Golden  Age 267 

Alexander 297 

Hannibal 317 

The  World  finds  a  Master          ....  337 

The  Price  of  Empire 358 

Index 379 


Vll 


INTRODUCTION 


LIST  OF  MAPS 


I.    The  Ancient  World    . 
II.    Alexander's  Campaigns 


III.    Imperium  Romanum 


Between  pages    24  and    25 


»» 


i» 


»» 


'» 


312  aud  313 


344  and  345 


My  Dear  Reader, 

You  have  perhaps  been  more  fortunate  than  I  was 
at  your  age,  in  which  case  I  apologize  for  obtruding  a 
superfluous  book  upon  you.  But  if  not,  then  there  have 
been  moments  when,  if  you  reflected  on  the  matter  at 
all,  you  said  to  yourself  that  there  were  once  people 
called  Greeks,  and  a  thing  called  Greek  History,  likewise 
Rome  and  Roman  History ;  a  very  long  while  ago,  of 
course,  probably  well  before  the  Battle  of  Hastings  ;  and 
that  even  earlier  than  either  of  these  races,  in  the  very 
dim  and  distant  past,  there  were  Egyptians  who  served 
Pharaohs  and  built  pyramids,  and  Assyrians  who  "  came 
down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold  "  with  tightly-curled  beards 
and  prominent  muscles,  and  Babylonians  who  sacked 
Jerusalem  and  disported  themselves  in  "hanging 
gardens."  You  have  studied  these  histories  separately 
and  most  probably  come  to  regard  them  as  records  of 
events  happening  in  widely  distant  places  at  widely 
distant  times,  totally  unconnected  with  one  another. 
Perhaps     you     have    not    even    wondered    in    what 


VUl 


L     _._ 


X 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


chronological     order,     if     any,     these     separate     and 
unconnected  units  should  be  disposed. 

And  yet  this  world  of  ours,  vast  though  it  may  be, 
is  all  contained  in  one  and  the  same  planet,  in  which 
there  are  no  unbridged  gaps,  and  from  the  earliest  times 
men   have   had   deahngs   with   their   neighbours.     The 
Greeks  and  the  Romans  were  near  in  time  and  place, 
in  blood  and   language,  and   Rome   and   Athens   lived 
then-  lives  side  by  side  for  five  centuries,  separated  by 
a  scarcely  greater  distance  than  that  between  London 
and  Aberdeen.     The   ancient   Egyptians    and  Babylo- 
nians were  contemporaries  and  rivals.     When  Abraham 
pitched  his  tent  under  the  oak  of  Mamre,  King  Minos 
was  founding  the  naval  empire  of  Crete  and  building 
the  great  "Labyrinth"   Palace   of  Cnossus.     Chinese 
recorded  history  begins  at  the  period  which  saw  Hector 
and  Achilles  matched  in  mortal   combat  beneath  the 
battlements  of  Troy.    Within  a  space  of  little  more  than 
a  century  (620-500  b.c),  Buddha  preached  in  India, 
Confucius  wrote  in  China,  Sappho  "loved  and  sang" 
in  Lesbos,  Nebuchadnezzar  levelled  Nineveh  with  the 
desert,    Cyrus    the    Great    marched    unopposed    into 
Babylon  and  sent  home  the  exiled  Jews,  Solon  uttered 
words    of    wisdom    to    Croesus    the    Magnificent,    the 
Tyrants  were  expelled  from   Athens,  and   the   last   of 
the  Tarquins  from  Rome,  and  Aesop  penned  his  im- 
mortal fables.     The  world  is   not  built   in  water-tight 
compartments,  nor  do  the   events  of  history  come  at 


INTRODUCTION 


XI 


.'> 


1^ 


long  intervals,  like  the  greater  comets.  We  are  all 
brothers,  and  there  is  no  break  in  our  pedigree  since 
"  Adam  delved  and  Eve  span  "  in  the  Garden. 

If  this  little  volume   helps  you  in  any  degree  to 
realize  this,  it  will  not  have  been  written  in  vain. 


i* 


M 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


^ 


My  thoughts  are  with  the  dead  :  with  them 

I  live  in  long-past  years, 
Their  virtues  love,  their  faults  condemn, 

Partake  their  hopes  and  fears  ; 
And  from  their  lessons  seek  and  find 
Instruction  with  an  humble  mind. 

SOUTHEY. 


CHAPTER  I 


THE    PYRAMIDS 


In  the  heart  of  the  largest  and  busiest  city  in  the  world, 
on  the  edge  of  the  turbid  Thames,  within  a  few  yards  of 
an  iron  bridge  over  which  trains  rattle  day  j^^^^  ^^^  ^^ 
and  night,  and  in  full  view  of  London's  most  E^tS/  ° 
modern  and  most  luxurious  hotels,  stands  a  ^^^^^^^^^ion. 
solitary  block  of  granite,  erect  and  solemn.     Seventy- 
three  feet  high,  raised  on  a  massive  pedestal,  blackened 
and  blurred,  it  seems  in  the  midst  of  the  noise  and  bustle 
to  brood  in  majestic  solitude  on  the  vanished  glories  of  a 
forgotten  past.     It  looks  disdainfully  down  at  the  muddy 
waves   beneath,   and  points  reproachfully   up  to    the 
leaden  sky  above.      Long,  long  ago,  it  breathed  a  clear 
dry  air,  innocent  of  soot  and  fog,  and  gazed  from  Egypt 
across  the  "wine-dark  deep"  at  the  setting  sun,  *and 
blushed  at  his  farewell  kiss.     This  famous  obelisk  is 
known  to  Londoners  who  pass  it  by  and  to  all  the  world 
who  have  heard  or  read  of  it  as  ''  Cleopatra's  Needle," 
very  much  as  every  ancient  camp  site  in  England  is  dubbed 
"  Caesar's  camp,"  and  with  even  less  reason.     In  fact, 
the  only  connexion  between  Cleopatra  and  the  "  Needle '' 
is  that  they  both  belong  to  an  age  outside  living  memory 
and  both  had  their  home  in  Egypt.     But    Cleopatra 
had  about   as   much  to   do  with  the   making  of  that 
granite  monument  as  Queen  Elizabeth  with  the  planning 

1  B 


2 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


of  Stonebenge.  It  is  most  important  before  proceeding 
any  furtber,  to  form  some  idea  of  tbe  antiquity  of 
Egyptian  civilization.  "  Cleopatra's  Needle,"  was  older 
to  Queen  Cleopatra  tban  Moses  was  to  the  last  de- 
fenders who  perished  in  the  flames  of  Jerusalem  in 
A.D.  70.  Thirteen  centuries  before  Christ,  Moses  stood 
before  Pharaoh.  And  yet  even  then  that  block  had  already 
been  standing  in  On  (Heliopolis)  for  three  hundred  years. 
Nor  is  this  all.  Old  as  it  may  seem,  with  its  life-story 
of  thirty-five  centuries,  the  "  Needle  "  is  younger  by 
twenty-seven  centuries  than  the  oldest  Pyramids,*  and 
carries  us  back  only  half-way  to  the  dawn  of  Egyptian 
bistory.  The  Pyramids  may  well  fill  us  with  awe  and 
amazement,  not  only  for  their  gigantic  proportions  but 
still  more  for  their  stupendous  age.  There  they  have 
stood,  majestic  and  unmoved,  for  six  thousand  years. 

Who  built  them  ?  What  manner  of  men  were  they 
who  planted  these  imperishable  memorials  of  their 
imagination,  skill,  wealth,  perseverance  and  power  ? 

Ancient    Egypt   was   a   long  and    narrow  country 

extending  along  both  banks  of  the  Nile  due  north  and 

south  over  a  length   of  six   hundred   miles, 

The  land       yj<fhi\e  the  width  of  the  cultivable  land  never 

^^^  "  exceeded  eight  miles  on  the  west  bank  or  three 
on  the  eastern.  In  fact,  the  land  of  Egypt  was  simply 
the  Nile  valley,  narrow  and  tortuous  in  its  upper  course 
and  in  its  lower  widening  into  the  broad,  flat,  alluvial 
plain  of  the  Delta,  in  prehistoric  times  it  is  clear  that 
all  the  upper  valley  was  the  actual  bed  of  the  gigantic 
river,  whose  waves  washed  the  limestone  t  hills  which 
now  at  times  recede  several  miles  from  the  present 
banks,  while  the  Delta  was  a  bay  of  the  Mediterranean. 

•  The  "  Step  Pyramid  "  of  Sakkarah  was  built  by  Ata  about  4300  B.C. 
t  Just  above  Thebes  the   hills    are   sandstone,  and   at  the  first 
cataract  there  is  red  granite. 


THE   PYRAMIDS  3 

Gradually,  in  the  course  of  many  thousands  of  years, 
perhaps  twenty  thousand,  perhaps  a  hundred  thousand, 
the  river  shrank  to  the  middle  of  its  bed  leaving  a  strip 
of  rich  soil  on  either  side  between  it  and  the  bills,  and 
at  the  same  time  silted  up  its  estuary  with  its  enormous 
deposits  of  mud  and  formed  the  Delta.  And  then  man 
looked  on  the  valley  and  saw  that  it  was  good  and  made 
his  dwelling  there. 

Flint  tools  have  been  found  on  the  hills  at  Esneh, 
several  miles  from  the  present  Nile,  on  what  must  have 
been  the  bank  of  the  huge  primaeval  river,  j,^ 
But  of  those  earliest  inhabitants   we  know  earliest 
nothing.     In  the  same  way  a  human  skeleton  ^^^^^i^^^^s- 
has  recently  been  unearthed  (1910)  at  Galley  Hill,  near 
Northfleet  on  the  Thames  Valley,  which   experts   say 
must  be  at  least  170,000  years  old.    But  of  the  man  who 
once  clothed  those  bones  in  warm  living  flesh,  and  ate 
and  drank  and  thought  in  those   far-off  days  we  can 
guess  nothing.     Very  likely  there  were  dwellers  by  the 
Nile  as  early,  and  probably  even  earlier. 

When  we  take  a  survey  of  prehistoric  times  and  the 
first  beginnings  of  the  historic  age  of  any  part  of  the 
world,    we  find    invariably  that    men    first 
congregated   along  the   banks   of  the   great  ciyUiJatio'n 
rivers.     There  was  every  inducement  to  them 
to  do  so.     The  river  supplied  water  for  drinking,  or  even 
washing,  fish  to  eat,  and  a  ready-made  high  road,  and 
a  convenient  receptacle  for  rubbish.      There  were  whirl- 
pools and  treacherous  banks  and  rapids,  and  in  some 
countries  an  occasional  hungry  crocodile   would  levy 
toll  for  the  use  of  his  domain ;  but  the  advantages  of 
river-side  life  easily  outweighed  its  drawbacks,  and  so  it 
was  along  nature's  great  waterways  that  the  tree  of 
civilization  first    struck    root.      Tbe    earliest    human 
settlements  of  which  we  have  any  knowledge  are  found 


I 


4  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

to  have  been  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nile,  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Hoang-ho  and  other 
great  rivers  of  China. 

The  Egyptians  themselves  were  at  one  time  fully 
persuaded,  so  Herodotus  tells  us,  that  they  were  the 
A  phiio-        oldest  nation  on  the  face  of  the  earth.     Un- 
^°E^^^^  nf  foi'tnnately,   one   of   their    more    intelligent 
*'Bekos."      Pharaohs,  who  had  a  weakness  for  ethnology 
and  statistics,  dispelled  the  fond  illusion  by  an  experi- 
ment totally  inconclusive,  but  for  all  that  exceedingly 
ingenious  and  amusing.      The  story  is  well  known,  but 
will  bear  repetition.      The  king  caused  two  new-born 
babes  to    be  given  into  the  care  of  one  of   the  royal 
shepherds,  with  strict  instructions  that  nobody  was  to 
utter  a  word  in  their  presence,  that  they  should  live  in 
solitude,  except  for  the  regular  ministrations  of  goats 
which  were  to  be  brought  in  at  intervals  to  supply  them 
with  milk.     After  two  years  of  this  regime,  the  shepherd 
was  taken  aback  one  morning,  on  entering  the  room 
where  this  novel  experiment  was  being  conducted,  to 
find  the  children  running  towards  him  with  loud  cries 
of  "Bekos."     The  prodigy  was  immediately  reported  to 
Pharaoh,  who  gave  orders  for  a  search  to  be  made  for 
a  language  in  which  this  strange  word  occurred.     The 
royal  commissioners  discovered  that  '*  Bekos  "  was  the 
Phrygian  for  bread.      From   that   day   the  Egyptians 
renounced  their    proud    title    and    allowed    that    the 
Phrygians  were  even  older  than  themselves  !     But  they 
clung  to  the  second  place.     Such  was  the  story  which 
Herodotus  heard  from  the  priests  at  Memphis. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  the  Egyptians  could  certainly  with 
.  ^f  justice  lay  claim  to  an  amazing  antiquity, 
earliest  There  are  actual  remains  in  existence  which 
remains.  ^^^  ^^qq^  on  seven  thousand  years  old.  But  the 
knowledge  and  skill  which  these  exhibit  are  convincing 


THE   PYRAMIDS 


5 


proof  that  even  in  those  remote  days  the  civilization 
which  could  produce  them  was  already  of  long  stand- 
ing. The  authors  of  the  tomb-sculptures  of  Medum 
(4600  B.C.  ?)  were  not  tiros  or  pioneers.  They  were  not 
groping  tentatively  in  an  unexplored  region  of  art. 
They  were  advancing  confidently  along  well-marked 
lines.  Their  art  had  been  developed  and  matured  by 
many  centuries  of  experiment  and  experience.  Hardly  a 
year  passes  by  but  some  fresh  discovery  is  brought  to 
light  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  But  so  far  no  record, 
however  old,  has  yet  shown  us  Egyptian  science  or  art 
in  a  state  of  infancy.  We  may  guess  at  what  an  im- 
mense distance  of  time  those  beginnings  must  be  placed. 
It  is  probably  safe  to  assume  that  the  Egyptians  were 
living  in  Egypt  at  least  ten  thousand  years  B.C. 

Where  did  they  come  from  ?     Nobody  knows.     They 
themselves,  of  course,  did  not  know,  and  we  are  left  to  con- 
jecture.   They  may  have  come  from  the  high-   origin 
lands  of  Abyssinia  and  followed  the  course  of  of  the 
the  Nile  to  their  new  home.      They  may  have   ^^^P''*"'- 
come  from  the   deserts    of  Arabia,  seeking  for  more 
favourable  surroundings  in  which  to  develop  their  genius. 
Most  probably,  however,  they  were  a  Caucasian  race, 
who  migrated  from  Asia  south-westwards  through  Syria 
and   Palestine   and  across   the  isthmus  of  Suez,   and 
gradually  worked  their  way  farther  and  farther  up  the 
banks   of  the  Nile  at  the   expense  of  the  Ethiopians, 
Memphis,   under  the  shadow  of   the  Great    Pyramid, 
was  a    royal  city  before   Thebes  with    its    statue   of 
'*  Memnon  "  and  rock-hewn  tombs  of  kings.     The  oldest 
monuments  are  to  be  found  in  the  northern  rather  than 
the  southern  portions  of  Egypt.    It  is  just  possible  that 
the  pyramids,   the   oldest  of  which   (at  Sakkarah  and 
Medum),    were   not    smooth-faced    but    presented   on 
their  four    surfaces  the    appearance  of  steps,   were   a 


4  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 

to  have  been  in  the  valleys  of  the  Nile,  the  Euphrates 
and  Tigris,  the  Ganges,  and  the  Hoang-ho  and  other 
great  rivers  of  China. 

The  Egyptians  themselves  were  at  one  time  fully 
persuaded,  so  Herodotus  tells  us,  that  they  were  the 
A  phUo-  oldest  nation  on  the  face  of  the  earth.  Un- 
logicai         fortunately,   one   of   their    more    intelligent 

experiment .  "^ '  r  i        i 

"Bekos."  Pharaohs,  who  had  a  weakness  for  ethnology 
and  statistics,  dispelled  the  fond  illusion  by  an  experi- 
ment totally  inconclusive,  but  for  all  that  exceedingly 
ingenious  and  amusing.  The  story  is  well  known,  but 
will  bear  repetition.  The  king  caused  two  new-born 
babes  to  be  given  into  the  care  of  one  of  the  royal 
shepherds,  with  strict  instructions  that  nobody  was  to 
utter  a  word  in  their  presence,  that  they  should  live  in 
solitude,  except  for  the  regular  ministrations  of  goats 
which  were  to  be  brought  in  at  intervals  to  supply  them 
with  milk.  After  two  years  of  this  regime,  the  shepherd 
was  taken  aback  one  morning,  on  entering  the  room 
where  this  novel  experiment  was  being  conducted,  to 
find  the  children  running  towards  him  with  loud  cries 
of  "  Bekos."  The  prodigy  was  immediately  reported  to 
Pharaoh,  who  gave  orders  for  a  search  to  be  made  for 
a  language  in  which  this  strange  word  occurred.  The 
royal  commissioners  discovered  that  **  Bekos  "  was  the 
Phrygian  for  bread.  From  that  day  the  Egyptians 
renounced  their  proud  title  and  allowed  that  the 
Phrygians  were  even  older  than  themselves  !  But  they 
clung  to  the  second  place.  Such  was  the  story  which 
Herodotus  heard  from  the  priests  at  Memphis. 

Be  that  as  it  may,  the  Egyptians  could  certainly  with 
Age  of  justice  lay  claim  to  an  amazing  antiquity. 
earliest  There  are  actual  remains  in  existence  which 
remains.  ^^^  close  on  seven  thousand  years  old.  Bat  the 
knowledge  and  skill  which  these  exhibit  are  convincing 


THE   PYRAMIDS 


6 


proof  that  even  in  those  remote  days  the  civilization 
which  could  produce  them  was  already  of  long  stand- 
ing. The  authors  of  the  tomb-sculptures  of  Medum 
(4G00  B.C.  ?)  w^ere  not  tiros  or  pioneers.  They  were  not 
groping  tentatively  in  an  unexplored  region  of  art. 
They  were  advancing  confidently  along  well-marked 
lines.  Their  art  had  been  developed  and  matured  by 
many  centuries  of  experiment  and  experience.  Hardly  a 
year  passes  by  but  some  fresh  discovery  is  brought  to 
light  in  the  valley  of  the  Nile.  But  so  far  no  record, 
however  old,  has  yet  shown  us  Egyptian  science  or  art 
in  a  state  of  infancy.  We  may  guess  at  what  an  im- 
mense distance  of  time  those  beginnings  must  be  placed. 
It  is  probably  safe  to  assume  that  the  Egyptians  were 
living  in  Egypt  at  least  ten  thousand  years  b.c. 

Where  did  they  come  from  ?    Nobody  knows.     They 
themselves,  of  course,  did  not  know,  and  we  are  left  to  con- 
jecture.   They  may  have  come  from  the  high-   origin 
lands  of  Abyssinia  and  followed  the  course  of  of  the 
the  Nile  to  their  new  home.      They  may  have   ^^^p^^^^^- 
come   from   the   deserts    of  Arabia,   seeking   for   more 
favourable  surroundings  in  which  to  develop  their  genius. 
Most  probably,  however,  they  were  a  Caucasian  race, 
who  migrated  from  Asia  south-westwards  through  Syria 
and   Palestine   and  across   the   isthmus   of   Suez,   and 
gradually  worked  their  way  farther  and  farther  up  the 
banks   of  the  Nile  at  the  expense  of  the  Ethiopians. 
Memphis,   under  the  shadow  of   the  Great    Pyramid, 
was  a    royal  city  before   Thebes  with    its    statue   of 
**  Memnon  "  and  rock-hewn  tombs  of  kings.     The  oldest 
monuments  are  to  be  found  in  the  northern  rather  than 
the  southern  portions  of  Egypt.    It  is  just  possible  that 
the   pyramids,   the   oldest  of  which   (at  Sakkarah  and 
Medum),    were    not    smooth-faced    but    presented   on 
their  four    surfaces  the    appearance  of  steps,   were  a 


6  THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 

reminiscence  of  the  temples  of  the  Euphrates  valley 
which  were  huilt  in  the  form  of  superimposed  decreasing 
cubes.  If  so,  this  would  give  a  hint  of  the  direction 
from  whence  the  pyramid-builders  came.  But  this  is  a 
mere  conjecture. 

Travellers  tell  us  that  there  is  an  extraordinary 
resemblance  between  the  average  type  of  the  modern 
Appearance  Egyptian  peasant  and  the  features  of  the 
of  ancient  ancient  Egyptian  statues  and  sculptures. 
Much  may  be  learnt  from  photographs  or, 
better,  a  visit  to  a  museum.  Look  at  the  heads  of  the 
Pharaohs,  and  especially,  walk  all  round  them  and  study 
them  from  every  side.  The  face  is  oval,  with  a  small 
forehead,  large  eyes,  full  lips,  a  firm  chin  and  a  long 
nose,  curved  downwards  with  wide  nostrils  and  reaching 
close  to  the  upper  lip.  Of  course,  there  are  individual 
variations.  Some  faces  convey  a  distinct  suggestion  of 
a  negroid  element.  No  doubt  the  race  was  not  kept  pure 
always,  but  intermarried  with  the  Nubians  and  other 
African  races.  The  small  wooden  statue  of  Eameses  II. 
("  the  Great,"  1330-1308  b.c.)  in  the  British  Museum  has 
a  particularly  commanding  expression.  His  profile  is  not 
very  unlike  that  of  the  great  Napoleon  in  youth.  Another 
firm  strong  face  is  that  of  Amememhat  III.  (Twelfth 
Dynasty,  2300  B.C.,  contemporary,  perhaps,  of  Abraham). 
The  head  of  Thothmes  III.  (Eighteenth  Dynasty,  1600 
B.C.)  who  set  up  ''  Cleopatra's  Needle,"  is  curious.  Full 
face  it  is  distinctly  negroid,  but  this  look  is  entirely 
absent  from  his  profile,  where  the  long  downward-curving 
nose  is  most  noticeable.  Speaking  in  a  general  way  of 
these  early  Egyptians,  the  colour  of  the  skin  was  brown, 
the  men  being  darker  than  the  women.  They  had 
square  shoulders,  small  wrists,  and  long  feet  with  low 
insteps.  We  may  distinguish  two  types.  One,  the 
highest,  was  tall  and  slender,  with  proud  expression  and 


THE  PYRAMIDS  7 

imperious  bearing,  with  long  fine  hands,  muscular  arms 
and  legs,  and  slightly  developed  hips.  The  head  was 
short,  the  face  oval,  the  forehead  retreating,  the  eyes 
wide,  the  nose  fairly  prominent,  straight  or  aquiline,  the 
mouth  long,  the  lips  full,  the  teeth  small  and  even,  the 
ears  set  high.  The  hair  was  wavy,  but  never  *'  woolly," 
the  beard  thick  only  on  the  chin.  The  common  type  was 
of  a  squat  and  heavy  build.*  Kings  and  queens  wore,  as 
is  well  known  from  their  statues,  elaborate  wigs,  while 
the  kings  also  wore  artificial  beards,  which  fashion  lent 
their  expressions  an  undeniable  solemnity  and  grandeur. 
The  dress  of  the  Egyptians  was  of  the  simplest. 
The  men  wore  a  short  kilt,  very  full  in  front.  They  wore 
also  a  wig  or  fairly  long  hair,  and  walked  Dress, 
barefoot   or    in   sandals.     The   priests   wore  i°!tf®!'   „„j 

•L  manners  and 

leopard-skins.     The  women  wore  tight  skirts  customs. 

reaching  to  the  ankles,  fastened  by  shoulder-straps  and 

a  girdle  round  the  waist.     The  queens  wore  in  addition 

a  full-length  shirt  of  fine  linen  with  wide  sleeves,  and  a 

peculiar  head-dress.    The  men  were  all  clean  shaven ; 

the  women  wore  their  hair  long  and  were  proud  of  it, 

and  painted  their  eyes  with  *'  kohl."     Young  children 

were   carried  by  their  mothers  slung  in  shawls,  wore 

little  or  no  clothing,  and  were  kept  in  thorough  subjection. 

Polygamy  was  practised,   but  was  not   general.     The 

houses  were  built  in  two  stories,  generally  of  unbaked 

bricks,  with  flat  roofs,  which  were  extensively  used  as 

living  or  sleeping  rooms.     In  the  better  houses  the  walls 

were  often  decorated  with  painting  and  sculpture.     The 

chief  business  of  life  was  agriculture  and  hunting :  the 

Egyptian's  diet  was  varied,  including  many  kinds  of  fish, 

flesh,  fowl  and  vegetables;   he  drank  wine  and  a  beer 

made   of  barley,  and   drunkenness   was  not  altogether 

unknown  in  the  land  of  the  Pharaohs. 

♦  Maspero, «'  The  Dawn  of  Civilization,"  p.  47  (S.P.O.K.). 


8 


THE   ANCIENT  WOULD 


The  Greek  traveller  and   historian,  Herodotus,  did 
not  visit  Egypt  till  the  middle  of  the  fifth  century  b.c. 

Herodotus  ^^^^o  ^"^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  builders  of  the  j^yramids  or 
on  Egyptian  even  the  comparatively  modern  **  Sesostris," 
us  oms.  ^j^^  great  conqueror  Rameses  11.  But  in 
essentials  the  people  had  not  changed  much,  and 
his  description  will  serve  to  animate  our  picture  of 
this  remarkable  nation.  He  was  much  struck  by  what 
he  saw.* 

**  Egypt  surpasses  all  the  countries  of  the  earth  in 
wonders,  which  defy  description,"  he  says.  **As  their 
climate  is  extraordinary,  and  their  river 
behaves  quite  dilierently  from  other  rivers,  so 
the  inhabitants  have  laws  and  customs  for  the  most  part 
the  direct  opposite  of  other  nations.  The  women  do  the 
marketing  and  trading,  while  the  men  stay  indoors  and 
weave ;  and  here  again,  while  other  people  weave  from 
above  downwards,  the  Egyptians  weave  from  below 
upwards.  The  men  carry  burdens  on  their  heads,  the 
women  on  their  shoulders.  They  take  their  meals  in 
the  streets. 

**  No  woman  ever  holds  priestly  office  for  any  god  or 
goddess ;  the  men  do  so  in  all  cases.  Sons  need  not 
support  their  parents,  if  they  are  not  so 
disposed,  but  daughters  must,  whether  they 
like  it  or  no. 

**  Elsewhere  priests  wear  their  hair  long,  in  Egypt 
they  shave.  In  other  countries,  when  a  death  occurs,  the 
Mourainff  nearest  relatives  shave  their  heads,  but  the 
Egyptians,  who  till  then  shaved,  let  their  hair 
and  beards  grow.  Other  men  live  apart  from  their  live- 
stock, the  Egyptians  live  in  their  company.  Others  live 
on  wheat  and  barley,  but  among  the  Egyptians  it  is  a 
disgrace  to  use  these  as  food :  they  make  loaves  out  of 

♦  Herodotus,  Book  II.  35,  3G,  37. 


Priests. 


THE   PYRAMIDS 


9 


spelt,  which  some  call  *zea.'     They  knead  dough  with 
their  feet,  but  they  take  up  mud  or  even  dung 
with  their  hands.     The  men  wear  two  gar- 
ments, the  women  one.    Other  men  fasten  the  rings  and 
sheets  of  their  sails  outside,  but  the  Egyptians  inside 
the  gunwales.     The  Greeks  write  letters  and 
figures  from  left  to  right,  the  Egyptians  from   "^"^^^^• 
right  to  left;  and  they  maintain  that  in  doing  so  they 
write  *  right- ways,'  while  the  Greeks  write  *  left- ways.' 
They  employ    two    alphabets,   one    sacred,   the    other 
'  demotic  '  or  popular." 

It  may  be  mentioned  in  passing  that  in  early 
inscriptions,  both  Greek  and  Latin,  the  writing  often 
proceeds  from  right  to  left,  and  at  times  from  left  to 
right  and  right  to  left  in  alternate  lines,  or  even  in 
columns,  alternately  up  and  down. 

"  They  are  more  religious  than  any  other  nation  and 
observe  the  following  customs.  They  drink  out  of  bronze 
cups,  which  they  scour  every  day ;  this  custom 
is  not  observed  by  some  and  neglected  by  observances, 
others,  but  all  to  a  man  observe  it.  They 
wear  linen  garments  always  fresh-washed,  and  are  very 
particular  about  this.  The  priests  shave  their  whole 
body  every  other  day,  so  that  neither  lice  nor  any  other 
impurity  may  be  on  them  while  they  serve  the  gods. 
And  the  priests  wear  only  Imen  garments  and  shoes  of 
byblus  :  any  other  kind  of  garment  or  shoe  is  illegal. 
They  bathe  with  cold  water  twice  every  day  and  twice 
every  night,  and  observe  one  might  almost  say  ten 
thousand  other  ceremonies.  But  they  enjoy  not  a  few 
advantages.  For  they  do  not  use  up  or  spend  any  of 
their  own  property,  but  they  have  sacred  food  cooked  for 
them  and  a  liberal  daily  supply  of  beef  and  goose  and 
wine:  but  they  may  not  taste  fish.  The  Egyptians 
never  sow  beans,  and  those  which  do  grow  they  will  not 


10 


THE  ANCIENT  WOKLD 


THE  PYRAMIDS 


11 


eat,  either  raw  or  boiled,  while  the  priests  canuot  bear 
even  the  sight  of  them,  holding  them  unclean.  Each 
god  has  not  one  but  several  priests,  one  of  whom  is  chief 
priest.     And  when  a  priest  dies,  his  son  succeeds  him.'* 

The  laws  were  stern  but  not  excessively  so;  the 
punishment  for  theft  was  flogging,  probably  a  more  effec- 
Punish-  tive  and  certainly  a  far  cheaper  remedy  than 
ments.  ^j^^gg  adopted  by  twentieth-century  Europe. 

Compared  with  our  own  present-day  civilization  with 

its  gramophones  and  aeroplanes,  life  then  was  simple, 

but  it  was  by  no  means  primitive  or  semi- 

Egyptian  -n 

religion.  savage.  For  proof  of  this  we  need  only  look 
at  ancient  Egyptian  art,  architecture,  litera- 
ture and  religion.  It  would  require  a  separate  volume 
to  deal  with  this  last  at  all  adequately.  Our  first  im- 
pression is  one  of  utter  bewilderment  at  the  number  of 
the  gods  and  their  titles,  and  the  elaborateness  of  the 
old  rites  and  ceremonies.  The  Egyptians  had  indeed  a 
high  and  noble  conception  of  one  supreme  and  self- 
existent  god.  Bat  this  belief  was  from  the  earliest  times 
deeply  overlaid  with  the  most  extreme  form  of  polytheism.* 
Each  district,  each  village  almost,  had  its  own  deities, 
arranged  in  groups  of  three,  or  eight  or  nine  (Triads, 
Ogdoads  and  Ennctvds).  Each  god,  moreover,  often  re- 
joiced in  a  multitude  of  names.  Ra,  the  sun-god,  with 
his  seventy-two,  and  Osiris  were  not  the  only  pluralists  in 
titles.  The  gods  and  goddesses  ate  and  drank  and  behaved 
generally  like  men  and  women.  Some  of  the  most  im- 
portant gods,  to  mention  only  a  handful,  were  Ptah,  the 
father  of  gods  and  men  and  Lord  of  Truth ;  Amon  Ra, 
the  Sun-god,  the  god  of  On  (Heliopolis)  ;  Osiris,  Son  of 
Heaven  and  Earth,  brother  and  husband  of  Isis  and 
father  of  Horus ;  Anubis,  the  god  of  the  dead ;  Thoth, 

•  In  this  and  the  next  four  paragraphs  I  am  indebted  for  my  infor- 
mition  to  *'  Dwellers  on  the  Nile,"  by  E.  A.  Wallis  Budge. 


the  god  of  writing,  art  and  science;  and  Horus,  son 
and  avenger  of  Osiris.  Of  the  goddesses  it  must  suffice 
to  mention  Isis,  wife  of  Osiris  and  mother  of  Horus. 
Wonderful  tales  were  told  about  Osiris.  One 
was  that  after  living  happily  for  some  years  ^yth"^^* 
with  Isis,  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  Horus,  he 
was  locked  in  a  chest  and  thrown  into  the  river  by  a 
brother  called  Set  and  his  wife  Nephthys.  Isis  found  the 
body  and  hid  it.  But  Set  one  day  discovered  it  and  cut  it 
up  into  numberless  small  pieces,  which  he  then  scattered 
over  the  world.  The  disconsolate  widow,  however,  after 
a  weary  and  devoted  search  found  them  all  and  enclosed 
each  fragment  in  a  separate  tomb.  Then,  when  Horus 
grew  to  man's  estate,  he  with  the  aid  of  Thoth  slew  his 
wicked  uncle,  and  his  murdered  father  was  avenged. 
The  story  can  be  explained  as  a  parable,  Osiris  being  the 
Sun,  and  his  enemy  Set,  the  Night,  while  his  son  Horus 
is  the  new  Sun  appearing  on  the  morrow.  The  Osiris 
story  was  the  popular  favourite  in  the  national  theology. 
It  was  spiritualized  and  transferred  from  its  original 
reference  to  the  sun  of  the  physical  world,  to  the  moral 
life  of  man  with  its  struggles  and  temptations.  Osiris 
stood  for  the  principle  of  Good,  and  Set  his  enemy  repre- 
sented moral  Evil,  while  Thoth  was  a  name  for  Reason. 
The  pious  Egyptian  assumed  the  name  of  Osiris,  no  doubt 
as  a  protection,  when  he  passed  iuto  the  other  world. 

The  national  creed  included  a  belief  in  immortality, 
and  tremendous  importance  was  attached  to  the  burial 
of  the  dead.  The  body  must  on  no  account 
be  allowed  to  decay,  because  the  departed  ^^^^' 
soul  might  at  any  time,  in  the  course  of  ages,  wish  to 
re-occupy  its  former  lodging.  Moreover,  it  must  have 
a  residence  where  the  dead  could  feel  at  home.  Hence 
arose  the  practice  of  embalming,  and  the  great  care 
bestowed  on  making  the  tombs  secure  and  inviolable, 


i 


12 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


and  at  the  same  time  decorating  them  with  scenes 
from  the  dead  man's  earthly  life.  The  walls  of  the 
chamher  where  stood  the  statue  in  which  the  ''image  " 
of  the  deceased  was  supposed  to  reside,  were  covered 
with  such  scenes;  over  the  doorway  or  on  a  pillar 
were  inscribed  pious  prayers  to  the  powers  of  the  other 
world ;  while  down  below,  forty  feet  deep,  or  more,  lay 
the  mummy,  waiting  patiently  for  the  return  of  its  soul. 
The  mummy  was  tightly  wrapped  in  its  ''cartonnage  '* 
of  linen  and  plaster;  this  was  enclosed  in  a  wooden 
coffin  shaped  approximately  to  the  human  form,  and 
then  deposited  in  the  stone  sarcophagus,  which  was 
carved  out  of  a  single  block  of  basalt,  granite  or  diorite, 
somewhat  resembling  in  shape  a  modern  bath,  and  was 
closed  by  a  ponderous  lid  of  the  same  material. 

The  wooden  coffin  and  the  stone  sarcophagus  were 
both  generally  covered  with  hieroglyphs,  most  commonly 
The ''Book  passages  from  the  *'Book  of  the  Dead." 
of  the^  This  was  a  sacred  book  of  ritual,  supposed  to 

have  been  written  by  the  god  Thoth,  and  so 
ancient  that  long  before  Abraham  visited  Egypt,  it  had 
already  to  a  great  extent  become  unintelligible.  It 
was  extremely  long  and  elaborate.*  Put  briefly,  it 
described  in  minute  detail  the  progress  of  the  deceased 
from  the  moment  of  death,  through  successive  meta- 
morphoses and  ordeals,  to  the  attainment  of  eternal 
life  and  assimilation  with  Osiris,  the  great  and  good. 
There  were  all  kinds  of  difficulties  to  overcome  and  perils 
to  pass  through — from  malignant  demons  who  swarmed 
at  every  step  and  delivered  malicious  attacks  at  every 
point.  The  Book  prescribed  the  proper  charm  or 
formula  for  every  possible  emergency.  By  its  means 
only  could  the  traveller  accomplish  his  journey  un- 
scathed.    Last  cf  all  came  the  trial  in  the  Judgment 

*  There  is  a  coloured  facsimile  at  the  British  I^Iuseum. 


THE  PYRAMIDS 


13 


Hall  before  Osiris  and  a  crowded  bench  of  judges. 
There  again,  the  Book  supplied  the  answer  to  every 
question.  The  soul  was  weighed  in  the  balance.  This 
ordeal  safely  passed,  the  deceased  was  admitted  to  the 
company  of  the  gods,  and  became  as  one  of  them. 

Such  a  religion,  while  curious  and  interesting,  at 
first  sight  appears  repulsive,  buried  as  it  is  under  its 
complicated  polytheism  and  elaborate  ritual 
as  under  a  heap  of  rubbish.     But  under  it    f^b^stance 
all  there  is  a  good  foundation.      No  doubt    of  this 
the  uneducated  mind  took  a  low  material    "  ^^^°^' 
view  of  the  old  theology,  its  stories  and  forms ;  but  the 
religious   eye   saw   deeper   and,   through  the   mass  of 
symbols,  caught   glimpses   of  a   more   real  and   soul- 
satisfying  substance.     True,  in  portions  of  the  **  Book 
of  the  Dead,"  the  morality  seems  not  to  go  very  far. 
For  instance,  in   the   great  trial-scene,  the   deceased 
makes  only  a  negative  claim,  that  he  has  not  committed 
this  or  that  offence  ;  positive  claim  there  is  none. 

**  I  have  not  been  idle,  I  have  not  boasted,  I  have 
not  stolen,  I  have  not  told  falsehoods,  I  have  not 
blasphemed,  I  have  not  multiplied  words  in  speaking, 
I  have  not  defiled  the  river,  I  have  not  calumniated  the 
slave  to  his  master,"  etc.* 

But,  after  all,  even  so  the  standard  is  not  so  low. 
How  many  modern  Christians  could  honestly  make  such 
a  declaration,  complete  in  all  its  clauses  ?  Nor  is  this 
all ;  a  little  further  we  read  as  follows  : — 

**Let  the  Osiris  {i.c,  the  deceased)  go.  Ye  know  he 
is  without  fault,  without  evil,  without  sin,  without 
crimes.  ...  He  lives  off  truth.  ...  He  has  given  food 
to  the  hungry,  drink  to  the  thirsty,  clothes  to  the  naked. 
.  .  .  His  mouth  is  pure,  his  hands  are  pure."  t 

*  Abridged  from  E.  A.  Wallis  Budge,  "  Dwellers  on  the  Nile,"  p.  176 . 
t  Ibid.  p.  177. 


14 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


THE  PYEAMIDS 


15 


Egyptian  literature  is  the  oldest  in  existence.  More 
than  four  thousand  years  before  Christ,  under  the  Third 
Early  Dynasty,  the  Egyi)tian  is  taught  by  a  native 

fiferatur^  philosopher  to  avoid  intemperance,  and 
reminded  that  a  cup  of  water  is  all  that  is 
needed  to  slake  thirst,  and  that  the  slave  of  his  appetites 
is  contemptible  and  loathsome.  A  little  later,  under 
the  Fifth  Dynasty,  another  sage  gives  excellently  wise 
advice  to  fathers  on  the  subject  of  education.  A  son  is 
to  be  brought  up  in  the  fear  of  God ;  virtue  is  to  be 
rewarded;  vice,  though  discountenanced  and  abhorred, 
does  not  abolish  parental  responsibility,  and  is  no  excuse 
for  parental  neglect  or  hate.  The  same  writer  gives 
valuable  hints  to  the  self-made  man  as  to  his  demeanour 
to  inferiors  and  to  the  God  who  has  been  kind  to  him. 
Many  other  writers  express  deep  and  poetical  thoughts 
on  both  life  and  death. 

It  would  be  easy  to  quote  numberless  instances. 
We  cannot  look  at  statues,  epitaphs,  temple  inscriptions, 
or  papyri,  even  of  the  earliest  ages,  without  finding 
in  them  abundant  proofs  of  fihal  gratitude,  reverence 
for  truth  and  justice,  neighbourly  charity,  and  kind 
consideration  for  inferiors.  Clearly,  ancient  Egypt 
possessed  a  noble  religion. 

But,  probably,  to  nine  out  of  ten  of  us,  the  most 
striking  thing  about  the  early  Egyptians  was  not  their 
Archi-  religion   or  their  literature   or    their   social 

tecture :  the  organization  or  their  customs,  but  their 
architecture.  Its  appeal  is  more  direct  and 
simpler.  The  dullest,  most  unobservant  and  un- 
imaginative modern,  though  blind  to  all  else,  cannot 
fail  to  see  a  pyramid  four  hundred  feet  high,  and  to  be 
impressed  by  it. 

The  popular  notion  that  there  are  three  pyramids  in 
Egypt,  close   together,   not    far    from  Cairo,  with  the 


Sphinx  crouching  on  the  desert  sand  in  the  foreground 
and  the  sun  setting  in  the  background,  is  kept  ahve  by 
book  illustrations  and  advertisements  of  cheap  tours  in 
railway  stations.     As  a  matter  of  fact,  the  name  of  the 
pyramids  is  legion.     True,  the  familiar  Great  Pyramid 
of  Gizeh  is  the  largest,  but  there  are  others  even  older 
and  more  interesting.     The  oldest  are  the  ''  Step  Pyra- 
mid *'  at  Sakkarah,  and  the  so-called  ''  False  Pyramid  " 
at  Medum,  and  there  are  others  of  some  size  and  import- 
ance at  Dahshur,  Hawara  and  Illahun,  while  smaller 
and  inferior  specimens  are  to  be  found  in  the  neighbour- 
hood of  the  larger  ones  and  in  great  numbers  at  Abydos 
and  in  the  plains  between  Medum  and  Memphis.     The 
pyramids  are  tombs.     They  are  found  only  in  Middle 
Egypt,  that  is,  between  Cairo  and  the  southern  limit  of 
the  Fayum,  and  ceased  to  be  erected  after  the  Twelfth 
Dynasty,  so  that  none  of  them  is  later  than  2000  b.c. 
The  oldest  date  probably  from  about  4300  b.c.     They* 
naturally,  vary  in  height,  but  have  much  in  common! 
The    base    is    always    square,    and    the     angle     from 
base  to   apex  nearly  always   50^     While   the   quality 
of  the  niterior  material  varied  from  solid  Hmestone  or 
red  granite   to   a  mixture  of  masonry  and  rubble  or 
broken  chips   or  even   mud   bricks,   the   exterior    was 
always   faced  with  a   good  solid  casing  of  fine   stone 
well  jomted  and  polished.     In  the  centre,  underneath 
the  mighty  mass,  usually  hewn  out  of  the  solid  rock  on 
which  the  pyramid  stood,  was  the  sepulchral  chamber 
containing  the  mummy  in  its  sarcophagus.     Access  to 
tUe  chamber  was  by  a  narrow  tunnel  with  a  concealed 
entrance   in   the   northern  face  of  the  pyramid.     The 
tunnel  was  often  very  tortuous  and  complicated  by  false 
passages  leading  nowhere,  while  the  true  passage  was 
walled  up,  the  object   apparently  being  to  make  dis- 
covery of  the  body  difficult. 


16 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Many  pages  could  be  filled  with  descriptions  of  the 
several  pyramids,  every  one  of  which  has  its  own  peculiar 
The  Great      interest,  and,  one  might  almost  say,  personality. 
Pyramid.       ^0  the  inhabitants  they  were  known  as  **  The 
Glorious,"   *'Tlie  Height,"  ''The  Great,"  ''The  Cool," 
*'  The  Beautiful,"  "  The  Pyramid  of  Souls,"  "  The  Firm 
Life,"  "  The  Beautiful  Rising."  *     A  single   one  must 
serve  as  a  type.     The  Great  Pyramid  of  Gizeh  was  built 
by  Khufu  (Cheops),  the   second  king  of    the   famous 
Fourth   Dynasty,  probably  somewhere  about  4000  r..c. 
The  height  of  it  is  450  feet,  about  30  feet  lower  than 
when  it  was  complete,  and  the  breadth  at  the  base  746 
feet,  originally  764.     It  is  100  feet  higher  than  our  own 
St.  Paul's  .Cathedral,  in  fact  higher  than  any  building  in 
the  world  except  the  Eiffel  Tower  and  the  spires  of  Ulm, 
Cologne  and  Strasburg,  and  covers  an  area  of  13  acres, 
or  room  enough  for  three  or  four  football  grounds.     The 
outer  casing  has  almost  entirely  disappeared,  and  the 
faces  now  present  the  appearance  of  a  series  of  steps. 
The  entrance  is  in  the  northern  face  about  50  feet  from 
the  base.     The  tunnel  which  descends  into  the  centre  of 
the  pyramid  at  an  angle  of  26"^,  is  only  3  feet  11  inches 
high  and  3  feet  5k  inches  wide.     About   60  feet    from 
the  entrance,  another  tunnel,  securely  closed  and  con- 
cealed by  masonry,  starts  from  the  roof  of  the  first  and 
ascends  at  a  corresponding  angle,  widening  after  109 
feet  into  the  Grand  Passage,  which  is  nearly  7  feet 
wide  at  the  base,  28  feet  high  and  156  feet  long,   and 
leads  through  a  horizontal  passage  22  feet  long  to  the 
lung's    Chamber,   containing    the    royal    sarcophagus. 
This  chamber  is  34  feet  long,  17  feet  wide,  and  19  feet  t 

*  A  most  fascinating  book  on  the  subject  is  Prof.  Flinders  Petrie's 
"Ten  Years'  Digging  in  Egypt,"  to  which  the  present  writer  is  much 
indebted. 

t  The  measurements  are  from  !Maspero's  •*  Dawn  of  Civilization," 
pp.  3GG-370. 


1 


THE  PYKAMIDS  17 

higb  and  is  lined  with  red  granite.  The  sarcophagus 
IS  of  the  same  material.  The  blocks  comprising  the  loof 
we.gh  over  fifty  tons  apiece.  There  are  also  other 
passages  and  other  chambers. 

It  is  of  course  easy  to  say  that  the  early  Pharaohs 
had  uuhmited  labour  at  their  command,  which  would 
make   it  possible    for    them   to    erect   these 
stupendous   piles    of    solid    masonry.     That    0^^'" 
laet  may  e.xplaiu  the  quantity,  but  it  leaves    '""'^■ 
untouched  the  quality  of  the  work.     We  mav  still  h^ 
..ustly  filled  with  amazement  and  admiratfon!  b    h  t 
the  manner  m  which  those  early  builders,  six  thou  and 
years  ago,  quarried,  shaped,  jointed  and  polished  these 
extreme  y  hard  materials,   and    at   the  ^xtraoi^  na"; 
skill  and  accuracy  of  the  architects  in  planning  and 
carrying  out  works  on  so  gigantic  a  scale  without  aJy 
appreciable  error  of  measurement  in  hne  or  anMe     if 
IS  supposed  that  they  employed  bronze  saws  s^t  with 
diamonds    and   circular    drills.     In  a  later  chapter  fe 
shall    have  occasion   to   refer   to  a  kind  of   Egyptian 
Pompeu,  a  town  once  inhabited  by  the  workmen  eliigeS 
n  the  building  of  a  pyramid  at  lUahun.     The  finds  there 
however,  belong  to  a  later  period.     Let   us  see  what 

St  of^H^  *°''  ''  "^^-^P"'^"  ^^--'^  about  the  ci:! 
stiuctKm  of  the  very  pyramid  we  have  been  considering. 

ihey  told  me  that  Egypt  was  a  most  law-abiding 

ountry  to  the  time  of  Ithampsinitus,  and  exceS  S 

prosperous,  but  that  his   successor   Cheoos    k    . 

coming  to  the  throne  plunged  into  every  Mnd   -^e""' 

of  wickedness.    For  first   he  closed  all  the   t'hf  &' 

temples   and  prohibited    all   sacrifices,   and   ^^"^^ 

then  he  forced  all   the  Egyptians  to  labour  for  him 

Some  were  told  off  to  drag  stones  from  the  quarriTs 

0  tittrsto"^  V'  ^"^^  ''^^^  --  -s 

receive  the  stones  when  they  were  conveyed  across 


18 


THE  ANCIENT  AVORLD 


the  river  in  boats  ami  to  dviiii,  tlioiu  to  the  Libvaii  bill. 
And  they  ^vorkecl  in  shifts  of  a  huiulred  thousand,  each 
shift  for  three  months.  Ten  years  the  oppression  of 
the  people  lasted  while  they  built  the  road  along  which 
the  ptones  were  dragged,  a  work  not  much  less,  in  my 
opinion,  than  the  pyramid  itself;  for  it  is  five-eighths 
of  a  mile  long,  and  20  yards  wide,  built  of  smooth 
stone  and  dejorated  with  carved  figures.  Ten  years 
were  spent  on  this  road  and  the  underground  vaults 
in  the  hill  on  which  the  pyramids  stand,  which  vaults 
Cheops  made  as  a  tomb  for  himself  in  an  island 
surrounded  by  Nile  water  brought  there  in  a  canal. 
The  building  of  the  pyramid  itself  occupied  twenty 
years.  It  is  square  at  the  base,  each  side  800  feet  long 
and  the  height  the  same,  and  is  built  of  polished  stone 
carefully  jointed  :  no  stone  is  less  than  30  feet  long. 

*'  And  this  was  the  way  it  was  built.  It  was  first  built 
in  the  form  of  stairs,  ami  when  this  was  done,  they  raised 
Method  of  ^^^^  remaining  stones  with  machines  made  of 
lifting  short  pieces  of  w^ood,  lifting  them  from  the 

stones.  ground  on  to  the  first  step.     And  as  soon  as 

a  block  was  on  this,  it  was  laid  on  another  machine 
which  stood  on  the  first  tier  and  from  this  it  was  raised 
on  to  the  second  step,  and  put  on  another  machine. 
For  there  was  a  machine  to  every  step,  unless  they 
had  a  single  portable  machine,  which  they  carried  up, 
stone  and  all,  from  step  to  step — for  I  wish  to  give  both 
of  the  accounts  I  heard.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  top  of 
the  pyramid  was  finished  first,  then  they  did  the  parts 
next  below,  and  last  of  all  they  completed  the  lowest 
parts  next  the  ground. 

**  There  is  a  hieroglyphic  inscription  on  the  pyramid 

stating  how  much  was  spent  on  radishes  and 

onions  and  garlic  for  the  w^orkmen,  and,  so 

far  as  I  can  remember  what  the  dragoman  said  when 


THE   rillAMlDS 


19 


explaining  the  inscription,  the  sum  was  one  thousand 
six  hundred  talents  of  silver.  And  if  this  is  correct,  how 
much  more  is  it  not  reasonable  to  suppose  was  spent 
on  iron  tools  for  the  workmen  and  food  and  clothes,  con- 
sidering that  they  were  occupied  in  building  all  the  time 
already  mentioned,  besides  a  very  long  time,  I  think,  in 
quarrying  and  conveying  the  stone  and  in  making  the 
underground  excavations.  .  .  ."  (Herodotus,  II.  124, 125.) 

It  will  be  seen  that  Herodotus  is  not  quite  accurate 
in  his  measurements  (especially  as  regards  height !), 
but  he  is  probably  perfectly  right  in  his  account  of  the 
method  of  raising  the  stone  blocks. 

A  few  hundred  foot  south-west  of  the  Great  Pyramid 
of  Khufu  (Cheops),  stands  Ivhafra's  (Chephren's)  which 
is  almost  as  large  (447  feet  high  with  a  width  other 
of  G'JO  feet),  and  south-west  of  that  again  is  the  pyramids, 
smaller  pyramid  of  IMenkaura  (Mycerinus)  which  is  only 
203  feet  high  by  354  feet  wide.  Near  the  three  large 
pyramids  are  three  smaller  ones.  Each  pyramid  has 
its  temple  opposite  its  eastern  face,  and  about  a 
quarter  of  a  mile  east  of  the  middle  pyramid  stands  the 
world-famous  Sphinx. 

This  is  a  gigantic  figure  of  a  recumbent  man-headed 
lion,  188  feet  long  and  G5  feet  high,  and  carved  out  of 
the  living  rock.  In  IGOO  B.C.  it  was  fast  dis- 
appearing under  the  sand,  and  it  is  on  record 
that  the  great  Eighteenth  Dynasty  conqueror,  Thothmes 
III.,  the  same  Pharaoh  who  erected  **  Cleopatra's 
Needle,"  caused  the  mountains  of  sand  to  be  removed, 
and  revealed  the  ancient  and  forgotten  monument.  But 
who  first  created  it  nobody  knows.  It  is  quite  possibly 
even  older  than  its  neighbour  the  Great  Pyramid. 
There  it  has  remained  for  unnumbered  centuries  and  still 
crouches,  gazing  impassively  across  the  Nile  and  the 
desert  at  the  rising  sun  of  whom  it  is  the  noble  symbol. 


The  Sphinx. 


1 


20 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


Such  was  the  ancient  race  which  lived  on  the  banks 
of  the  Nile,  and  such  its  life  and  some  of  its  works. 
^   „.  Their  first  recorded  human  king  was   Mena 

Dynasty:      (Menes),  whose  date   is  put  about  4G00  b.c. 
Mena.  rjij^^  Egyptian  priest  Manetho  (about  250  b.c.) 

has  preserved  the  names  of  eight  kings  belonging  to  the 
First  Dynasty.     Professor  Flinders  Petrie  has  found  the 
tombs  of  seven  of  them  at  Abydos,  while  M.  de  Morgan 
found  the  tomb  of  Mena,  the  first  of  the  line,  at  Nagada. 
Besides  these   tombs  with  their  curious  wooden  inner 
chambers,    a    survival    of    the    prehistoric    hut,    were 
found  thousands  of  objects  of  all  kinds.     Even  in  those 
remote  times  art  and  science  were  considerably  advanced, 
it  is  proved,  by  a  beautiful  crystal  vase  of  the  time  of 
Mena.     There  are  also  wonderful  ivory  carvings,  metal 
bowls,  knives  and  needles ;  and  what  is  perhaps  the 
oldest  example   of  writing  in  existence,   a   workman's 
account  scratched  on  a  broken  piece  of  pottery,  and 
dating  from  about  4600  b.c. 

Of  the  remainder  of  the  First  Dynasty  and  the  kings 
of  the  Second  and  Third  Dynasties  very  little  is  known, 
except  that  the  "  Step  Pyramid  "  of  Sakkarah 
II.,  III.,  was  probably  built  by  Ata,  of  the  First 
and  IV.  Dynasty.  The  Fourth  Dynasty  comprised  the 
builders  of  the  great  pyramids.  Seueferu,  the  first  of 
the  line,  built  the  pyramid  of  Medum.  Khufu  (Cheops) 
built  the  Great  Pyramid  of  Gizeh,  as  we  have  already 
seen.  His  son  and  successor,  Khafra  (Chephren)  built 
the  second  close  to  it,  while  the  third  was  erected  by 
Menkaura  (Mycerinus). 

We  still  possess  remarkable  portrait-statues  of  both 
Khufu  and  Khafra,  relics  of  an  age  when  the  art  of  the 
Relics  of  Egyptian  statuary  was  in  its  prime,  and  had 
early  kings,  j^q^  y^^  submitted  to  the  trammels  of  conven- 
tion.    The  sarcophagus,  coffin  and  mummy  of  Menkaura 


THE   PYRAMIDS 


21 


were  actually  found  complete  in  his  pyramid,  but  un- 
fortunately this  priceless  treasure  was  lost  at  sea  on  its 
way  to  England,  with  the  single  exception  of  the 
decorated  coffin-lid,  which  is  now  in  the  British 
Museum. 

The  Dynasties  from  the  fifth  to  the   eleventh  are 
little   more  than  names  to   us.      The  next  period  of 
importance  in   Egyptian   history  to   engage    Dynasties 
our  attention   will  be  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,    ^'-^^' 
fourteen  hundred  years  later  than  the  age  of  the  Great 
Pyramid. 


CHAPTER  II 


THE    EUPHRATES  COUNTRY 


Though  the  Pharaoh  of  HeroJotus's  story  had  made  a 
disappointing  experiment,  yet  the  Egyptians  firmly 
The  helieved  that  they  were  at  least  among  the 

Egyptians  ^^Qgi;  ancient,  and  by  implication  no  doubt  the 
in  their  best,  nations  on  the  face  of  the  earth — for  to 
antiquity,  ^^iq  average  human  mind  antiquity  seems 
necessarily  to  carry  a  guarantee  of  worth  and  respect- 
ability. But  the  claim  to  priority  in  age  and  merit  is 
not  an  uncommon  one.  Probably  every  self-respecting  and 
properly  patriotic  Chinaman  to  this  day  believes  that  his 
nation  existed  and  was  civilized  before  the  rest  of  the  world 
bad  come  into  being.  The  more  sober-minded  matter-of- 
fact  Romans  did  not  claim  any  remote  antiquity  for  the 
city  of  the  Seven  Hills.  Perhaps  they  felt  that  all  the 
future  was  theirs,  and  so  did  not  trouble  themselves 
about  the  past.  But  the  Athenians,  regarded  by  the 
Egyptians  as  a  mere  mushroom  growth,  plumed  them- 
selves on  having  occupied  Attica  from  the  beginning  of 
time,  or  before ;  and  no  doubt  pious  Jews  claimed  Adam 
as  their  own  particular  earliest  ancestor.  The  early 
Egyptians  might  think  themselves  at  any  rate  the  most 
civilized  of  nations.  They  had  reason  to  be  proud  of 
their  attainments.  They  were  first-rate  embalmers, 
artists  and  architects.  But,  apart  from  the  making  of 
mummies,  they  had  no  monopoly  of  skill.  There  were 
other   writers,  other  artists,  other  architects.     Among 

22 


THE  EUPHRATES  COUNTRY 


23 


their  rivals  we  must   give   a  very  high  place  to  the 

dwellers  on  the  Tigris  and  the  Euphrates. 

Every  child  has  heard  of  the  '*  hanging-gardens,"  of 

Babylon.     But  they  hang  no  more.     The  site  of  Babylon 

is  mainly  a  mountain  of   sand.     More  than 

.,     /.  ,1    .    .       -.  m         i       Babylon. 

2000  years  ago  it  fell  into  decay.  Twenty 
centuries  before  that  it  was  the  capital  of  the  great 
conqueror  and  law-giver  Hammurabi,  the  Amraphel  of 
Genesis,  and  the  contemporary  of  Abraham.  But  its 
history  began  even  earlier.  The  city  is  mentioned  for 
the  first  time,  so  far  as  we  know,  in  the  reign  of 
S argon  I.  (Sargina)  of  Accad,  probably  about  3800  b.c. 
In  those  very  remote  ages,  dates  are  necessarily  very 
uncertain.  But  it  is  not  at  all  unlilcjely  that  when  the  great 
pyramids  of  Cheops  and  Chephren  were  slowly  rising  by 
the  Nile,  Babylon  on  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  was 
already  an  ancient  city !  There  are  hints  that  the 
Egyptians  entered  Egypt  from  the  north-east,  and  that 
the  jiyramid-tomb  was  originally  built  in  steps,  like  the 
Tnird  Dynasty  pyramid  of  Sakkarah,  and  was  a  modifica- 
tion of  a  pattern  borrowed  from  the  east. 

Whether  it  be  a  little  older  or  a  little  younger  than 
Egypt,  the  early  history  of  the  Euphrates  valley  is,  like 
all  early  histories,  overlaid  with  legendary  and  miraculous 
elements,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  disentangle  fact  from 
fable. 

The  old  Hebrew  tradition,  almost  certainly  borrowed 
from  the  Chaldaean,  brought  from  Ur,  spoke    T^e  Garden 
of  the   "Garden   of  Eden,*'    as   the  earliest   of  Eden, 
home  of  mankind  and  pictured  it  as  an  abode  of  bliss. 

Eden  stretched  her  line 
From  Auran  eastward  to  the  royal  towers 
Of  great  Seleucia,  built  by  Grecian  kings, 
Or  where  the  sons  of  Eden  long  before 
Dwelt  in  Telassar  :  in  this  pleasant  soil 
His  far  more  pleasant  garden  God  ordained : 


24 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 

Out  of  the  fertile  ground  he  caused  to  grow 
All  trees  of  noblest  kind  for  sight,  smell,  tasto ; 
And  all  amid  them  stood  the  tree  of  life, 
High  eminent,  blooming  ambrosial  fruit 
Of  vegetable  gold  ;  and  next  to  life. 
Our  death,  the  tree  of  knowledge,  grew  fast  by, 
Knowledge  of  good,  bought  dear  by  knowing  ill. 
Southward  through  Eden  went  a  river  large, 


And  now  divided  into  four  main  streams. 

Buns  diverse,  wandering  many  a  famous  realm 

And  country,  whereof  here  needs  no  account ; 

But  rather  to  tell  how,  if  art  could  tell 

How  from  that  sapphire  fount  the  crisped  brooks, 

Boiling  on  orient  pearl  and  sands  of  gold. 

With  mazy  error  under  pendent  shades 

Ban  nectar,  visiting  each  plant,  and  fed 

Flowers  worthy  of  Paradise,  which  not  nice  art 

In  beds  and  curious  knots,  but  nature  boon 

Poured  forth  profuse  on  hill,  and  dale,  and  plain, 

Both  where  the  morning  sun  first  warmly  smote 

The  open  field,  and  \vhero  the  unpierced  shade 

Imbrowned  the  noontide  bowers  :  thus  was  this  place, 

A  happy  rural  seat  of  various  view  ; 

Groves  whose  rich  trees  wept  odorous  gums  and  balm ; 

Others  whose  fruit,  burnished  with  golden  rind, 

Hung  amiable,  Hesperian  fables  true, 

If  true,  here  only,  and  of  delicious  taste  : 

Betwixt  them  lawns,  or  level  downs,  and  flocks 

Grazing  the  tender  herb,  were  interposed. 

Or  palmy  hillock  ;  or  the  flowery  lap 

Of  some  irriguous  valle>  spread  her  store. 

Flowers  of  all  hue,  and  without  thorn  the  rose.* 

The  locality  which  at  any  rate  was  in  the  writer's  mind 
when  he  penned  the  opening  chapters  of  Genesis,  would 
seem  to  Sir  W.  \Viilcocks  to  have  been  identified  with 
some  degree  of  probability  by  his  recent  surveys  in 
Mesopotamia-t  A  careful  examination  of  levels  seems  to 
him  to  indicate  that  at  a  very  remote  period  the 
Euphrates  a  little  below  the  modern  village  of  Hit,  due 

•  Milton,  Paradise  Lost,  Bk.  IV.  210-256. 

t  See  the  article  "  New  Light  on. the  Story  of  the  Flood,"  by  Bev. 
J,  O'F,  WiJlcocks,  in  Pearson's  Magazine,  April,  1911,  p.  418t 


f 

i 


^ 


THE  EUPHEATES  COUNTRY 


25 


* 

west  of  Bagdad,  split  into  four  rivers,  answering  to  the 
description  in  Genesis.  The  "  Garden  of  Pleasantness  " 
(the  meaning  of  *'  Eden  ")  may  then  be  imagined  to  have 
been  the  country  near  the  present  village  of  Anah, 
which  is  still  one  vast  fruit-garden,  a  few  miles  higher 
up,  where  the  Euphrates  issues  from  the  hill-country 
of  Armenia.  Perhaps  this  is  a  hint  that  the  earliest 
ancestors  of  the  Chaldaeans  came  originally  from  the 
upper  waters  of  that  great  river;  and  it  has  been 
suggested  that  ''the  Sons  of  God"  may  have  been  the 
self-arrogated  title  of  some  isolated  and  exclusive  race 
living  in  the  highlands  of  that  district.  It  must,  how- 
ever, be  noted  that  the  rich  alluvial  plain  of  Babylon  in 
the  south  was  anciently  called  Edin,  which  is  suspiciously 
like  the  "Eden"  of  Genesis. 

The  Euphrates  seems  likewise  to  have  furnished  the 
setting  for  the  ancient  story  of  the  Flood  as  found  in 
both  Hebrew  and  Chaldaean  literature.  The 
Biblical  account  is  too  familiar  to  bear 
quotation ;  but  the  reader  may  be  reminded  in  passing 
of  one  or  two  details.  Noah's  ark  was  made,  says  the 
story,  of  '*  gopher  "  wood :  ''goofa"  to  this  day  is  the 
local  name  for  the  round  coracles  of  poplar  wood  used  on 
the  Euphrates.  *'  AH  the  high  mountains  "  which  the 
rising  water  was  said  to  have  covered,  should  read 
"  all  the  high  deserts  " :  the  water  rose  fifteen  cubits, 
scarcely  sufficient  to  cover  "mountains,"  but  quite 
enough  to  flood  all  the  surrounding  desert.  Assyrio- 
Babylonian  literature  was  very  rich  in  Flood  stories : 
quite  recently  a  fragment  was  unearthed  containing  a 
version  of  it  at  Calneh  (one  of  Nimrod's  cities),  and 
probably  many  more  will  be  brought  to  light.  In  all 
probability  the  historical  foundation  for  them  all  was 
an  unusually  great  and  disastrous  flood  of  the 
Euphrates,   The  survivors*  story  went  on  being  repeated 


The  Flood. 


26 


THE  ANCIENT  WOKLD 


through  succeeding  ages  and,  of  course,  lost  nothhig  in 
the  telling,  till  at  last  the  waters  rose  so  high  as  to  cover 
all  the  earth  and  the  first  land  to  reappear  was  the 
summit  of  AFount  Ararat !  Primitive  men  did  not  know 
how  to  build  dams  and  sluices  and  dykes,  and  the  story 
of  a  great  flood  is  one  of  the  most  universal  traditions. 
We  find  it  in  India,  China,  Persia,  Egypt,  and  in  Greece, 
where  the  place  of  the  Biblical  Noah  is  taken  by  Deucalion. 
In  Chaldaean  literature  one  account  of  the  Flood 
occurs  in  a  fragment  of  the  poem  of  Gilgamesh.  The 
^^  hero  there  is  Shamashnapishtim,  who  tells 

Chaldaean      the  story,  and  the  scene  is  laid  in  the  city 
tradition.      ^^  Shurippak  on  the  Euphrates.*     ^' All  was 
destroyed  among  living  things   upon   the   earth;    the 
horrible   flood    rose  up   even  to   heaven,   the  brother 
saw  his   brother  no   more,   and   one   man  no  longer 
knew  another.     In  heaven  the  gods  were  afraid,  they 
went  up  to  the  heaven  of  Anu.     There  they  remained 
and  moved  not,  huddled  together  like  dogs.  ...   Six 
days  passed  and  as  many  nights ;  as  the  seventh  day 
drew  near,  the  rain   of  the  flood   abated.  .  .  .  After 
seven  days  I  sent  forth  a  dove ;  the  dove  went,  turned 
this  way  and  that  and  found  no  place  where  to  alight, 
and  then  she  returned  unto  me.     I  caused  a  swallow  to 
come  forth  and  let  her  go ;   the  swallow  went,  turned 
this  way  and  that  and  found  no  place  where  to  alight, 
and  then  returned  unto  me.     I  caused  a  raven  to  come 
forth  and  let  him  go;  the  raven  found  some  carrion 
upon  the  waters ;  he  did  eat  and  came  back  no  more. 
Then  I  raised  the  altar  of  my  burnt  offering  upon  the 
peak  of  the  mount.    The  gods  smelled  the  smell  thereof, 
yea,  they  smelled  a  goodly  smell.     The  gods  gathered 
together  like  unto  flies  over  above  my  sacrifice.  .  .  .'* 

*  Westphal    and    Du    Pontet,    "The    Law    and    the    Prophets" 
(Macmillan),  p.  53  (referred  to  later  as  Westphal). 


THE   EUPHRATES  COUNTRY 


27 


In  another  version  the  hero,  this  time  called  Xisu- 
thros,  is  ordered  to  bury  in  the  city  of  Sippara  (the 
Sepharvaim  of  the  Bible,  just  north  of  Another 
Babylon)  all  the  books  containing  the  sacred  account, 
sciences  of  old.  When  he  disappeared,  a  voice  from 
heaven  told  his  companions  to  dig  up  the  books  and 
hand  them  down,  and  told  them  also  that  the  country 
where  they  were  was  Armenia. 

Excavation  is  busily  proceeding  in  the  country  of 
the  Euphrates  and  Tigris,  and  every  year  adds  to  our 
stock  of  data  and  pushes  back  further  into  the    Early 
past  the  dividing  line  between  history  and    remains, 
the  prehistoric  age.       The  oldest  remains  hitherto  dug 
up  are  some  graceful  specimens  of  pottery,  probably 
ten  thousand  years  old,  if  not  older,  in  other  words 
older    by   fully   four  thousand  years   than  the   Great 
Pyramid  !     Not  very  much  can  be  made  at  present  out 
of    an  isolated   find   here    or    there;    but    thin    and 
apparently  flimsy  fibres,  if  twisted  together  in  sufficient 
numbers,   can    make    a    rope    which    will    anchor    a 
straining     Leviathan.       So     here    every    particle    of 
information  helps  and  may  go  to  form  a  new  link  in 
the  chain  of  evidence.     Inscriptions  which  are  often, 
alas,  mere  fragments,  do  however  carry  back  history 
with  reasonable  certainty  to  the  middle  of  the  fourth 
millennium  (about  3500)  e.g. 

Everybody  is  familiar  with  the  name  at  any  rate  of 
*' Ninny's  tomb,"  where  the  lovers  Pyramus  and  Thisbe 
were  to  meet  by  moonlight.  King  Ninus, 
whose  mortal  remains  slept  within,  had  ^''^''^' 
been  a  mighty  man  of  valour  in  his  day.  Diodorus 
Siculus,  who  of  course  never  dulled  the  colour  or 
lessened  the  romance  of  any  story  he  repeated,  depicts 
him  raising  and  successfully  training  an  immense  army 
by  catching  his  recruits  young,  and  with  this  formidable 


28 


THE  ANCIENT  WOKLD 


THE  EUPHRATES  COUNTEY 


29 


engine  conquering  Asia,  north,  south,  east  and  west. 
In  an  interval  of  peace  he  indulged,  like  nearly  all 
conquerors,  a  taste  for  architecture  on  a  large  scale,  and 
the  result  was  a  town  twenty  miles  long  by  ten  broad, 
with  walls  a  hundred  feet  high  and  fifteen  hundred 
towers,  bearing  the  world-famous  name  of  Nineveh,  in 
memory  of  its  founders.  He  may  possibly  be  the 
potentate  referred  to  in  the  Bible  under  the  more 
familiar  name  of  Nimrod,  who  *'  began  to  be  a  mighty  one 
on  the  earth,"  and  *'was  a  mighty  hunter  before  the 
Lord,"  who  ruled  in  Babel  and  Erech  and  Accad,  and 
**went  forth  into  Assyria  and  builded  Nineveh."* 

Scarcely  less  famous  is  that  monarch's  queen, 
Semiramis.  This  lady  had  an  extraordinary  history. 
Semiramis  ^^  course,  she  was  surpassingly  beautiful: 
that  quality  she  possessed  in  common  with 
most  heroines.  But  in  certain  other  respects  her  destiny 
was  peculiar.  Her  mother,  a  priestess,  was  metamor- 
phosed into  a  fish.  She  herself  being  exposed  as  an 
infant  on  a  barren  hillside,  was  fed  by  doves,  till  she 
was  rescued  by  a  peasant.  She  helj^ed  King  Ninus  to 
capture  a  Bactrian  stronghold  which  had  obstinately 
defied  all  his  efforts,  and  became  bis  wife.  On  the  king's 
death  she  erected  over  his  body  a  gigantic  sepulchre  a 
mile  high,  and  built  and  adorned  Babylon  as  a  companion 
city  to  Nineveh.  Finally,  it  being  obviously  quite  out  of 
the  question  for  her  to  die  as  other  w^omen  do,  when  her 
time  came,  she  assumed  the  form  of  a  dove  and  wint^ed 
her  way  into  space. 

Thus  Diodorus,  and  a  pleasing  tale  it  makes.  But, 
alas,  the  critics  tell  us  that  both  Ninus  and  his  super- 
More  sober  human  consort  must  be  regarded  as  almost 
facts.  ^  certainly  mythical.  However,  no  need  to 
despair.     Even   as  reconstructed   by  modern  learninc^ 

♦  Genesis  x.  8-J2. 


and  scepticism,  life  in  those  days  and  places  was  not 
entirely  devoid  of  interest,  variety  or  excitement.  There 
was  no  central  government  to  oppress  the  world  with 
a  load  of  dull  uniformity.  Independent  states,  rival 
capitals,  were  the  fashion.  Division  meant,  then  as 
always,  weakness,  and  the  land  was  subjected  to 
frequent  invasion.  Sumerians  and  Semites  The 
fought  for  the  mastery  in  this  human  cockpit.  Sumerians. 
The  former,  who  were  the  first  in  prolonged  possession, 
left  an  indelible  mark  behind  them  in  their  language 
which  survived  its  inventors  for  long  ages  and  remained 
the  vehicle  of  law  and  religion,  much  as  Latin  has 
survived  the  vanished  Eoman  Empire  in  law-books  and 
the  Mass  and  Papal  decrees. 

A  detailed  account  of  the  events  of  those  early  ages 
in  the  Euphrates  and  Tigris  valleys,  even  if  it  were 
possible,  would  take  up  too  much  space  and  Early 
in  the  end  would  only  confuse  the  reader's  ^story. 
mind.  Modern  research  has  proceeded  rather  unevenly ; 
one  site  has  been  more  thoroughly  explored  than  another,' 
and  the  fuller  knowledge  thus  acquired  may  tend  to 
attach  to  that  place  a  disproportionate  importance 
beyond  its  real  merits  as  compared  with  its  hitherto  less- 
known  neighbours.  It  will  be  sufficient  to  bear  in  mind 
that  for  many  centuries  there  was  no  unification.  There 
was  a  collection  of  rival  states,  much  as  in  England  in 
the  days  before  King  Alfred,  and,  as  in  that  case,  some- 
times one  state  held,  or  claimed,  the  hegemony, 
sometimes  another.  At  one  time  Lagash  (modern  Tello) 
IS  the  capital  of  a  dynasty  founded  by  Ur-Nina,  perhaps 
the  real  character  on  whom  the  story  of  Ninus  was  built. 
There  is  a  famous  monument  now  in  the  Louvre  (unless 
by  this  time  it  has  gone  the  way  of  Monna  Lisa !)  which 
bears  pictorial  witness  to  this  primitive  potentate.  In 
one  scene  slaughtered  enemies  are  being  devoured  by 


J 


I 


30 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


vultures ;  in  another  the  king  is  striking  with  a  heavy 
mace  a  wicker  cage  crammed  with  naked  prisoners. 
How  long  will  the  fallacy  of  *'  the  good  old  days  *'  sur- 
vive? The  laudator  tcmporis  acti  always  assumes  that 
he  would  have  been  on  the  winning  and  possessing 
side  or  forgets  that  there  was  another. 

Ur-Nina  built  or  re-built  Nineveh.  The  last  of  his 
race  was  defeated  by  an  assailant  possessing  an  unfair 
advantage  in  the  fearsome  name  of  Lugal-Zaggisi.  This 
polysyllabic  conqueror  established  his  capital  at  Erech, 
a  little  north  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees,  and  his  word,  or  at 
any  rate  his  sword,  was  law  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to  the 
Mediterranean. 

Then,  as  now,  irrepressible  nations  wanted  their 
"  place  in  the  sun  "  and  were  ready  to  fight  for  it.  The 
Sargon  I.  ^^^^^  ^^'^^  empire  in  those  regions  was  founded 
by  a  Semite,  Sargon  I.  (Sargina)  of  Accad  or 
Agade,  whose  date  according  to  the  traditions  would  be 
about  3800  b.c.  The  story  says  that  he  was  concealed 
at  his  birth,  sent  adrift  in  an  ark  of  bulrushes  on  the 
waters  of  the  Euphrates,  and  rescued  and  brought  up 
by  *' Akki  the  water-carrier."  An  Assyrian  co^Dy  of  the 
ancient  inscription  runs  thus  *  : — 

**  I  am  Sargina,  the  great  King;  the  King  of  Agani. 
My  mother  knew  not  my  father:  my  family  were  the 
rulers  of  the  land. 

**  My  city  was  the  city  of  Atzu-pirani  which  is  on  the 
banks  of  the  river  Euphrates. 

**My  mother  conceived  me:  in  a  secret  place  she 
brought  me  forth  : 

**  She  placed  me  in  an  ark  of  bulrushes  :  with  bitumen 
my  door  she  closed  up  : 

*'  She  threw  me  into  the  river,  which  did  not  enter 
into  the  ark  to  me. 

*  Westpliul,  p.  155. 


THE  EUPHRATES  COUNTRY 


81 


i 


''  The  river  carried  me  :  to  the  dwelling  of  Akki  the 
water-carrier  it  brought  me. 

''Akki  the  water-carrier  in  his  goodness  of  heart  lifted 
me  up  from  the  river. 

*'  Akki  the  water-carrier  brought  me  up  as  his  own 
son.  ..." 

The  concealment,  the  ark  of  bulrushes,  the  river,  the 
water-carrier,  all  reminds  us  instantly  of  Moses  on  the 
Nile  and  Romulus  and  Remus  on  the  Tiber.  Rivers 
played  a  large  part  in  the  life  of  ancient  nations  in  the 
days  when  they  did  the  work  of  the  post  office,  the 
railway,  the  water  company,  and  the  sanitary  engineer 
all  rolled  into  one. 

Sargina  repeatedly   invaded    Syria   and    Palestine. 
He  set  up  statues  on  the  shores  of  the  Medi-    sargon's 
terranean,  and   came   home  naturally  laden    conquests. 
with  rich  spoil,  including  even  copper  from  the  distant 
mmes  in  the  Sinai  peninsula. 

His  son  Naram-Sin,  who  adopted  the  title  *'  King  of 
the  Four  Zones  "  and  was  addressed  as  the  ''  God  of 
Agade "  (Accad),  anticipated  by  fully  three 
thousand  years  the  business-like  reforms  of  ^*'*°'-^^- 
Darius  the  Persian;  for  he  bound  the  whole  empire 
together  by  a  network  of  roads  and  an  elaborate  postal 
system.  Land-surveys,  probably,  one  suspects,  for 
taxation  purposes,  and  astronomical  observations  (let 
us  hope,  for  more  innocuous  ends),  were  also  carried 
out  and  carefully  recorded  for  the  royal  library. 

After  his  death,  the  seat  of  empire  was  transferred 
to  Ur,  afterwards  the  birthplace  of  Abraham.  In  the 
reign  of  his  son  Dungi  (about  2750  b.c.)  urofthe 
foreign  trade  seems  to  have  flourished,  for  Chaldees. 
quarried  stone  was  imported  from  Lebanon,  copper  from 
Arabia,  gold  and  precious  stones  from  the  desert 
between  Palestine  and  Egypt,  and  dolerite  from  Sinai. 


32 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


This  Semitic   dynasty  of  Ur  was    followed   bv  an 

Arabia  dynasty  which  re-built  Babylon  J1  foLZ 

Hammurabi.  ^^^  ^eat  of  government,  and   the   fame   of 

Sargon   was  destined   to  be  eclipsed   bv  it« 

great  law-giver  Hammurabi,  also  called    Hrmmuran 

country  and  drove  the  invaders  out  with  heavyToss 

A  word  of  caution  on  the  subject  of  chronJlo.v  In 
deahngwxth  the  eighth  or  even\he  ninircetu^  ,'o 
Chronology.  ^^^  "^  Safe  ground.    But  before  that,  tbe 

tbe  second,  tS  or  Zt  mm  *'  ^^"'*''"'°  ^''^'"^  ''^'^ 
extremely  difficult   aid   IpZrbv'm  ''  ""'"^' 

jno  xr^eSbr^s^^^^^^^^ 

teC^rV'T^'  1  'r;''  ^"^  consecutive"  or  17 
lemporaiy.  In  early  Hebrew  history  it  is  ,,rpftv 
certain    that    some  of  the    so-called    "Judges"  ivlt^ 

K'i:nth";Mrt^'''"^',?'  ^'^  eitCdX 

yeaS'^Hhfi^  e  r4ett^Vlf  r^  ^^^^^^T  ''^^ 
iiuvve\er,  wHen  all  is  said  and  done  thp  Pv«..f  .in* 

aaie  oi  bargon  I.  or  Sarfriri'i    '\M\n  ..  i 

ated  On  f t.n  .fi  f^",^'^!  ^^^^  ^-^"^  may  be  exagger- 
ated. On  the  other  band  it  may  not.  We  miv  fin.1 
some  day  that  it  was  understated.  It  is  enT^^h  o 
remember  that  the  betTinmna«nfPn.i  .  enough  to 
iustlv  Plnim  ar.  ^^^^^^^^^^"P^^i'atean  history  can 
J^i^%  claim  an  immense  antiquity,   equal   to  that  of 

It  is  interesting  to  note  resemblances  between  the 


THE  EUPHRATES  COUNTHY  83 

two  countries  in  other  paints  besides  the  antiquity  of 
their  civihzations.     In  both  there  is  a  mighty 
river  subject  to  recurring  inundations,  in  both    J^d  ^"' 
an  almost  total   absence  of  timber  and  an    Euphrates 
unlimited    abundance    of    clay   suitable   for   ''*"'^'* 
making  bricks.      Accordingly,   in  Egypt  most  of  the 
pyramids,  excapt  the  greatest,  were  built  of  bricks  in 
millions,  and   pictures  on  the  monuments  and  stories 
m   the  Bible  bear  ample  testimony   to   the   laborious 
occupation   of  brick-making.       Similarly,    the    buried 
town-sites  along  the  banks  of  the  Euphrates  under  their 
shrouds  of  sand  contain  veritable  mountains  of  bricks 
Along  both  rivers,  bricks,  bricks,  everywhere.    Evidently 
there  were  no  trade-unions  with  cramping  restrictions 
in  those  days ;  on  the  contrary,  the  foreman  took  the 
shape  of  a  taskmaster  whose  whip  exacted  a  ''  full  tale  " 
for  every  day. 

The  Euphrates  and  Tigris  valleys  have  been  men- 
tioned in  a  general  way  as  one  of  the  great  centres  of 
the  world's  earliest  civilizations.      There   is 
perhaps  no  more  common  historical  fallacv    p!'/^'^  ^""^ 
inan  the  confusion  of  Assyrians  and  Baby-    distin- 
lonians.     Many  people  inaccurately  use  the    ^''"^''^• 
names  as  convertible  terms.     They  may  be  reminded  at 
once  of  a   quite  famihar  fact,  that  in  the  case  of  the 
Hebrews  the  inhabitants  of  Samaria  and  the  northern 
kingdom  of  Israel  were  carried  off  into  captivity  by  the 
Assyrians  (722  b.c),  while  those  of  Jerusalem  and  Judah 
were  transplanted  by  Nebuchadnezzar  of  Babylon  (588 
B.C.)      Between  the  two  events  there  was  a  distance  of  a 
hundred  and  thirty  years,  and  in  the  interval  Nineveh 
had  been  wiped  out  and  Assyria  had  ceased  pohtically 
to  exist.     The  two  states  were  distinct  and  were  rivals 
It  18  quite  true  that  for  a  long  period  of  their  history 
they  were  closely  associated,  now  the  one  and  now  the 

D 


V     1 


34 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


other  being  the  predominant  partner  in  the  firm.     But 
they  were  distinct  geographically  and  in  character.    The 
Assyrians    occupied    the  country  at  one    time  called 
Mesopotamia,  that  is  the  tract  enclosed  between  the 
upper  portions  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  as  far 
south  as  the  point  where  the  two  great  rivers  draw  very 
close  together  a  little  north  of  Babylon.     The  Baby- 
lonians inhabited  the  land  south  of  that  point  down  to 
the  Persian  Gulf,  a  country  called  indifferently  Chaldaea 
or  bhinar.    As  regards  general  characteristics,  a  broad 
distmction  may  be  drawn.    The  Babylonians  were   a 
nation  of  traders  governed  by  priests.    Business  and 
religion  were  their  ruling  passions.     The  Assyrians,  on 
the  other  hand,  were  a  nation  of  soldiers.    Their  capital 
Nineveh  was  an  armed  camp,  and  war  was  the  breath 
of  their  nostrils.    They  gloried  in  aggression  and  con- 
quest, and  as  a  consequence  made  themselves  highly 
unpopular  with  their  neighbours,  who  at  last   rooted 
them  up  as  an  intolerable  nuisance. 

In  architecture,  sculpture,  and  literature,  the  two 
kingdoms  had  much  in  common.  Any  schoolboy  can  tell 
Assyrian  ^^^  *'  '*"<=e  the  obvious  characteristics  of  their 
Babvioni>.„  f"^- ''  l"^  attitudes,  heavy  drapery,  beards  and 
Art.^  ^a"'  of  "formal  cut  "  and  elaborately  curled, 

and  enormously  prominent  muscles  in  the 
arms  and  legs.  A  favourite  decoration  of  palaces  was 
colossal  sculptured  bulls,  with  wings  and  human  full- 
bearded  heads.  Babylonia,  being  entirely  devoid  of  stone, 
rehed  entirely  upon  bricks  for  its  architecture,  but 
Assyria  was  more  fortunate  in  possessing  good  stone  on 
the  upper  reaches  of  the  great  rivers  in  the  north,  and  the 
wal  s  of  Assyrian  palaces  were  lavishly  embellished  with 
tnely  sculptured  slabs  in  low  relief,  a  large  collection  of 
which  may  be  studied  at  the  British  Museum.  In  both 
the  kingdoms,  as  was  also  the  case  in  Egypt,  architecture 


THE  EUPHRATES  COUNTRY  35 

if^JZt^'tTrf''  ""^  '^'^  -  beauty  of  finish 
abo'ut  rersize    Ta  11".    "."'''  i^pressiveness 

sufficed  them.  Their  tastVf'"  '"'^' '  ^""^  *^^t 
better     Ti,r  ®'  ^^^^  ^^  t^eir  soul,  knew  no 

better.  They  were  a  race  who  believed  in  ^TJ  ^^ 
power,  whether  commercial  or  military  'd  ff  "1 
from  a  kind  of  "  megalomania  •'  ^^,^'  '"^^,  ^'^^^'^^^ 
ready  to  hand  in  theThaoe  of  J^^^T^  ^^'^^  t^e  labour 
flowed  in  from  coX^ZlZrZ:^e  Ss 

^^ate  the  Parthenon  and  £:\:^  ^^ 
In  religion  we  are  reminded  of  E<TVDt     TT.^. 

magic.    In  fact,  an  atmosphere  of  demons  pnri^     • 

ir„""  ss's 'r'""  "^^"«'°^  cTe: 

«o":  lo  ?r ,r"  «■•'  ?-••  "'t «  *c- 

v/yZ:Te'y  ho^lTerre'v  li!'-  ^"  T't  ''T' 
are  the  great  wo^-ms  whic'hrh^  \:,-  ^^^^  '.^^^ 


i 


86 


THE   ANCIENT  WOKLD 


^1 


They  journey  from  house  to  house,  for  the  door  stoppeth 
them  not,  the  bar  driveth  them  not  back,  but  they  slip 
like  a  serpent  under  the  door,  they  steal  in  like  the  air 
through  the  cracks  of  the  folding-doors.  They  tear  a 
child  from  a  man's  knees,  they  entice  the  innocent  from 
Ins  fruitful  house,  they  are  the  voice  of  threatening 
which  pursueth  him  from  behind." 

Not  even  the  lower  animals  are  safe,  for 

**  They  force  the  raven  to  fly  away  on  his  wings,  and 
they  oblige  the  swallow  to  flee  from  her  nest;  they  put  to 
flight  the  bull,  they  put  to  flight  the  lamb,  even  the  evil 
devils  which  lie  in  ambush."  * 

The  Chaldaean's  superstition  and  apprehension  made 
him  resort  to  all  manner  of  incantations.  He  was  a 
Magic.  iiiaster  of    magic,   and   was    famous   for   it 

throughout  the  world  for  many  centuries. 

But  there  was  a  brighter  side  to  the  picture.  The 
Chaldaean  was  deeply  religious.  He  was  meditative,  and 
Eeiigious  in  the  secret  depths  of  his  soul,  he  yearned 
instinct.       for  better  things  : 

"  Thou  man  yet  unborn,  put  thy  trust  in  Nebo,  and 
m  no  other  god  put  thy  confidence."  f 

He  believed  that  a  joyful  resurrection  from  the  dead 
was  possible  for  him  who  could  drink  of  the  living  water 
springing  in  the  palace  of  Allat,  Queen  of  the  Shades. 
The  legend  of  Ishtar  told  how,  for  love  of  Dumuzi,  the 
shepherd-boy,  Ishtar,  Queen  of  Love  and  Life,  went 
down  into  hell  and  stole  the  sacred  water.  The  poem 
of  Etana  and  the  Eagle  of  Shamesh  expressed  the 
longing  of  the  Chaldaean  spirit  to  know  what  lay  hidden 
**  behind  the  veil."  The  Eagle  bears  Etana  aloft, 
"  higher  still  and  higher,"  till  as  he  looks 

"  The  earth  is  now  no  more  than  a  square  in  a  garden, 
And  the  wide  sea  is  no  larger  than  a  splash  of  water.''  J 

*  Westphal,  p.  128.  VlbiI^^:T2^,  J  I6id.,  p.  134. 


THE  EUPHRATES  COUNTRY  37 

But  Etana  lost  heart,  and  bade  the  Eagle  stop,  and 

The  Chaldaean  had  a' more  "anxious"  religion    if 

lattei  s  self-r.ghteonsness  and  self-confidence.  He  was 
conscious  of  his  own  feebleness,  and  had  a  profound 
reverence  for  the  invisible  powers.  It  was  a^el.gfon 
winch  was  destined  to  go  further.  Out  of  Chaldaea  olZ 


CHAPTER  HI 

THE    AOE    OP   TIIR    PATRIARCnS  — (ilOO-lTOO  B.C.) 

But  a  few  years   ago   the   Ril.Iical   narrativos  of  the 
ancestors  of  the  Hebrew.,  standing  alone  an.l  „„corro- 

"t™h        ''^'■f**"^^  ^i'""'"^'-  •"•••I'i'octural,   or  other 
«nd  the        iirchaeologieal  evidence,  had  begun  to  lose 

;;fhs ""        '"If."  °^  "!""■  '•"'^'"y-    There  were  not  wanting 
critics    who   denied   the   "  Tatriarchs "  any 
personal  existence.    The  ancient  historian  was  supposed 
to  have  created  these  national  heroes,  and  to  have 
atiributed  to  them  the  experiences  of  the  nation  or 
tribe      Lven  to   those   who   were    less   extreme,   and 
accepted  their  historical  character,  yet  the  figures  of 
Abraham,  and  Jacob  and  his  sons,  still   moved  like 
imsubstantial  shadows  across  a  dimlv-lit  sta^e      But 
now,  tlianks  to  modern  research  and  discovery,  liaht  is 
pouring  on  to  the  scene.     The  details  of  the  background 
are  becoming  more  and  more  distinct,  and  the  ghostly 
shadows  stand  out  as  substantial  living  men,  thinkiiir; 
speaking,  and  acting,  in  a  world  daily  becoming  mor°e' 

In  the  last  chapter  we  took  a  general  survey  of  men 
and  things  in  the  earliest  times,  on  the  banks  of  the 
?h.5de';  ^"P^'^'f  ^''^  t»'e  Tigris.  Excavations  have 
n^  ,^  '  *''"f"y  •'^en  started  on  the  site  of  Ur  of  the 
Chaldees  the  home  of  Abraham,  and  every  year  will 
no  doubt,  bring  to  light  fresh  and  valuable  discoveries 
bearing  on  the  history  of  his  time.  Already  we  possess 
an  invocation  to  the  chief  local  god,  Nannar,  Lord  of  Ur 

88 


THE  AGE  OP  THE  PATRIABCHS  39 

"  Lord,  prince  of  the  gods,  who  in  heaven  and  on 

the  ends  of  the  sky,  hke  a  vast  sea,  with  fear  and  awe. 
.  .  .  m  ho.aven.  who  is  supreme  ?    Thou,  thou  only  art 
upreme-Thou,    whose    decree   is    made    known    in 
heaven,  and  the  angels  bow  their  faces- Thou,  whose 
decree  IS  made  known  upon  earth,  and  the  spirits  of  the 
abyss  kiss  the  ground-Thou,  whose  decree  breatheth 
above  like  the  wind,  and  the  stubble  and  the  pasture 
become    crtile-Thou,  whose  decree  is  fulfilled  on  the 
earth  below,  and  the  grass  and  all  green  things  grow. 
•  .  .  Ihou    whose  decree  hath  called  forth  right  and 
.lustice,  and  the  peoples  have  published  thy  statutes- 
Ihou.  whoso  decree,  neither  in  the  ends  of  heaven,  nor 
m  the  hidden  depths  of  the  earth,  can  any  man  know- 
lliy  decree  who  can  learn,  who  can  oppose  it  ? .  .    "  • 

AVith  this  grand  psalm  of  praise  compare  the 
humble  prayer — 

"0  Lord,  my  sins  are  many,  my  misdeeds  are  great. 
I  have  done  wrong  and  know  it  not;  I  have  committed 
sm  and  know  it  not ;  I  have  walked  in  shortcomings 

and  know  them  not I  am  overcome  with  grief  I 

am  overpowered  I  can  no  more  lift  up  my  head  toward 
my  merciful  god  .  .  .  Lord,  reject  not  thy  servant,  and 
If  he  have  thrown  himself  into  impetuous  waters,  stretch 
out  a  hand  toward  him ;   the  sins  I  have  committed 

have  mercy  on  them,  the  misdeeds  I  have  done,  scatter 

them  to  the  winds,  and  my  manifold  faults,  rend  them 

like  a  garment ! .  .  ."  f 

Evidently  Abraham  was  born  and  bred  in  a  country 

which  was  deeply  religious,  and  his  life  at  Ur  .^  . 

had   been  a  fit   preparation   for   his    great  anr""" 

destiny.    But  we  know  yet  more  of  the  ideas  ^""""abi. 

of  his  time.    In  1902  French  explorers   under  M   de 

*  Westphal,  p.  134.  ^  Ibid.  p.  135. 


40 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Morgan  made  a  sensational  discovery— no  less  than  the 
very  laws  of  Hammurabi,  King  of  Babylon,  the  great 
ruler  whose  empire  extended  from  the  Persian  Gulf  to 
the  Mediterranean,  and  who  is  represented  in  the  Book 
of  Genesis,  under  the  name  of  Amraphel,  King  of  Shinar 
as  suffering  a  reverse  at  the  hands  of  Abraham  (Gen.' 
XIV.  1  ff.).      The  monument,  which  was  found  at  Susa 
(long  afterwards  the  Persian  capital),  consists  of  a  pillar 
of  black  diorite,  nearly  eight  feet  high,  presenting  on  one 
side  a  picture  of  King  Hammurabi  receiving  the  laws 
from  the  Sun-god,  Samas,  and,  beneath  this,  sixteen 
columns  containing  1114  lines  of  cuneiform  writing  and, 
on  the  other  side,  twenty-eight  columns  containing  over 
2500  hues.     This  wonderful  code  of  laws,  the   oldest 
known  in  the  world  (date  about  2285-2242  b.c),  was 
held  in  such  respect  that,  two  thousand  years  later,  it 
was  still  used  as  a  text-book  in  the  schools  throughout 
Babylonia.     The  following  extracts  are  taken  from  the 
translation    by    Mr.    C.    H.    W.    Johns.*      They  are 
necessarily  few  and  short,  but  they  will,  perhaps,  suffice 
here  and  there  to  qualify  our  self-conceit  in  the  superior 
virtue  of  our  boasted  twentieth-century  civilization. 

Extracts  from  the  ''Law  of  Righteousness.'* 

Assanlf.~l(  a  man  has  struck  his  father,  his  hands 
one  shall  cut  off. 

If  a  man  has  caused  the  loss  of  a  gentleman's  eye 
his  eye  one  shall  cause  to  be  lost.  ' 

If  he  has  shattered  a  gentleman's  limb,  one  shall 
shatter  his  limb. 

If  he  has  caused  a  poor  man  to  lose  his  eye  or 
shattered  a  poor  man's  limb,  he  shall  pay  one  mina  of 
silver. 

T  ^*  ".^J"!  ^^^^'^  ^^'^'^  °^  ^^"^^  ^°  ^^^  World,"  translated  by  C  H  W 
Johns,  M. A.    T.&T.  Clark.    Edinburgh,  1903.  * 


THE   AGE   OF   THE  PATRIAHCHS  41 

oi,  u   \S^^*f^.^''^^'«  s^'-^ant  has  struck  a  free-man,  one 
shall  cut  off  his  ear. 

If  a  man  has  struck  a  man  in  a  quarrel  and  has 
caused  him  a  wound,  that  man  shall  swear  - 1  do  not 
strike  him  knowing,"  and  shall  answer  for  the  doctor. 

Carelessness.-U  a  man  has  hired  an  ox  and  throuoh 
neglect  or  by  blows  has  caused  it  to  die,  ox  for  ox  to  the 
owner  of  the  ox  he  shall  render. 

n../^/i  ^'^^.  ^.""  ?  ^''  '^'^'^^  ^''''  g^^'^d  a  ^an  and 
caused  him  to  die,  that  case  has  no  remedy 

If  the  ox  has  pushed  a  man,  by  pushing  has  made 
known  his  vice,  and  he  has  not  blunted  his  horn,  has  not 
shut  up  his  ox,  and  that  ox  has  gored  a  man  of  gentle 
birth  and  caused  him  to  die,  he  shall  pay  half  a  mina 
01  Sliver. 

Chihhrn.~l{  a  man  has  set  his  face  to  cut  off  his 
son,  has  said  to  the  judge  "  I  will  cut  off  my  son  "  the 
judge  shall  enquire  into  his  reasons,  and  if  the  soil  has 
not  committed  a  heavy  crime  which  cuts  off  from  son- 
ship,  the  father  shall  not  cut  off  his  son  from  sonship 

If  a  man  has  apportioned  to  his  son,  the  first  in  his 
eyes,  held,  garden,  and  house,  has  written  him  a  sealed 
deed  after  the  father  has  gone  to  his  fate,  when  the 
bio  hers  divide,   the  present  his  father  gave  him  he 

in  fhV      ;  *°f  .r?  T^  ^^"""^  ^"  '^^^^  ^^^'^  equally 
in  the  goods  of  the  father's  house. 

Contrach.-I{  a  man  has  bought  silver,  gold,  man- 
servant or  maidservant,  ox  or  sheep  or  ass.  or  anything 
whatever  is  name,  from  the  hand  of  a  man's  son,  or  o"f 
a  man  s  slave,   without  witness   and    bonds,    or    has 

ltZ7l    *5',fr'  °"  •^'P'''"'  ^^^^  '"^i  tas  acted  the 
thief,  he  shall  be  put  to  death. 

If  a  man  has  taken  a  field  to  cultivate  and  has  not 
caused  the  corn  to  grow  in  the  field,  one  shall  put  him 
to  account,  and  he  shall  give  corn  like  its  neighbour 


42 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


ii 


If  a  builder  has  built  a  house  for  a  man  and  has 
not  made  strong  his  work,  and  the  house  he  built  has 
fallen,  and  he  has  caused  the  death  of  the  owner  of  the 
house,  that  builder  shall  be  put  to  death. 

Ih'hta. — If  a  debt  has  seized  a  man,  and  he  has 
given  his  wife,  his  son,  his  daughter  for  the  money,  or 
has  handed  over  to  work  off  the  debt,  for  three  years 
they  shall  work  in  the  house  of  their  buyer  or  exploiter, 
in  the  fourth  year  he  shall  fix  their  liberty. 

If  a  man  has  a  debt  upon  him  and  a  thunderstorm 
ravaged  his  field  .  .  .  in  that  year  he  shall  not  return 
corn  to  the  creditor,  he  shall  alter  his  tablet  and  shall 
not  give  interest  for  that  year. 

Doctors. — If  a  doctor  has  treated  a  gentleman  for  a 
severe  wound  with  a  bronze  lancet  and  has  cured  the 
man,  or  has  opened  an  abscess  of  the  eye  for  a  gentle- 
man and  has  cured  the  eye  of  the  gentleman,  he  shall 
take  ten  shekels  of  silver. 

If  the  patient  be  the  son  of  a  poor  man,  he  shall  take 
five  shekels  of  silver. 

If  he  be  a  gentleman's  servant,  the  master  of  the 
servant  shall  give  two  shekels  of  silver  to  the  doctor. 

If  the  doctor  has  treated  a  gentleman  for  a  severe 
wound  with  a  lancet  of  bronze  and  has  caused  the 
gentleman  to  die,  or  has  opened  an  abscess  of  the  eye 
.  .  .  and  has  caused  the  loss  of  the  gentleman's  eye, 
one  shall  cut  off  his  hands. 

If  a  doctor  has  cured  the  shattered  limb  of  a  gentle- 
man, or  has  cured  the  diseased  bowel,  the  patient  shall 
give  five  shekels  of  silver  to  the  doctor. 

If  he  has  treated  a  cow  or  a  sheep  for  a  severe 
wound  and  has  caused  it  to  die,  he  shall  give  a  quarter 
of  its  price  to  the  owner  of  the  cow  or  sheep. 

Hiishand  and  wife. — If  a  man  has  been  taken  captive 
and  in  his  house  there  is  maintenance,  his  wife  has  gone 


THE  AGE   OF  THE  PATRIARCHS  43 

out  from  her  house  and  entered  into  the  house  of 
another,  one  shall  put  that  woman  to  account  and 
throw  her  into  the  waters. 

If  a  man  has  left  his  city  and  fled,  his  wife  has 
entered  the  house  of  another,  if  that  man  shall  return 
and  has  seized  his  wife,  because  he  hated  his  city  and 
fled,  the  wife  of  the  truant  shall  not  return  to  her 
husband. 

If  a  man  who  has  brought  in  a  present  to  the  house 
of  his  father-in-law,  has  given  a  dowry,  has  looked  upon 
another  woman  and  has  said  to  his  father-in-law  **  Thy 
daughter  I  will  not  marry,"  the  father  of  the  daughter 
shall  take  to  himself  all  that  he  brought  him. 

If  the  father  of  the  daughter  has  said  **  My  daughter 
I  will  not  give  thee,"  he  shall  make  up  and  return 
everything  that  he  brought  him. 

Landlord  and  tenant. — If  a  man  has  given  his  field 
for  produce  to  a  cultivator,  and  has  received  the  produce 
of  his  field,  and  afterwards  a  thunderstorm  has  ravaged 
the  field  or  carried  away  the  produce,  the  loss  is  the 
cultivator's. 

If  he  has  not  received  the  produce  of  his  field,  and 
has  given  the  field  either  for  one  half  or  for  one  third, 
the  corn  that  is  in  the  field  the  cultivator  and  the  owner 
shall  share  according  to  the  tenour  of  their  contract. 

If  a  man  has  given  a  field  to  a  gardener  to  plant  a 
garden  ....  if  the  gardener  has  not  included  all  the 
field  in  the  planting,  has  left  a  waste  place,  he  shall 
reckon  the  waste  place  in  the  share  which  he  takes. 

Slaves. — If  a  man  has  caused  a  slave  or  maid  to  go 
out  of  the  gate,  he  shall  be  put  to  death. 

If  a  man  has  harboured  in  his  house  a  fugitive 
manservant  or  maidservant,  and  has  not  j)roduced 
them  at  the  demand  of  the  commandant,  the  owner  of 
that  house  shall  be  put  to  death. 


ft 

4 


44 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


If  a  man  has  captured  a  manservant  or  maidservant, 
a  fugitive,  in  the  open  country  and  Las  driven  him  back 
to  his  master,  the  owner  of  that  slave  shall  pay  him  two 
shekels  of  silver. 

If  he  confine  that  slave  in  his  house,  and  afterwards 
the  slave  has  been  seized  in  his  hand,  that  man  shall  be 
put  to  death. 

Theft. — If  a  man  has  stolen  the  goods  of  temple  or 
palace,  that  man  shall  be  killed,  and  he  who  has  received 
the  stolen  thing  from  his  hand  shall  be  put  to  death. 

If  a  man  has  stolen  ox,  or  sheej),  or  ass,  or  pig,  or 
ship,  whether  from  the  temple  or  the  palace,  he  shall 
pay  thirtyfold.  If  he  be  a  poor  man,  he  shall  render 
tenfold.  If  the  thief  has  nought  to  pay,  he  shall  be  put 
to  death.  .  .  . 

(A  very  long  clause  provides  very  sensibly  that  in  tho 
case  of  an  innocent  purchase  of  stolen  property,  the 
innocent  buyer  shall  recover  the  purchase-money,  the 
original  owner  shall  recover  the  property,  and  the  thief 
shall  be  put  to  death.) 

If  a  man  has  stolen  the  son  of  a  free-man,  he  shall 
be  put  to  death. 

If  a  man  has  broken  into  a  house,  one  shall  kill  him 
before  the  breach  and  bury  him  in  it. 

If  a  man  has  carried  on  brigandage  and  has  been 
captured,  that  man  shall  be  put  to  death. 

If  in  a  man's  house  a  fire  has  been  kindled,  and  a 
man  who  has  come  to  extinguish  the  fire  has  taken  the 
property  of  the  owner  of  the  house,  that  man  shall  be 
thrown  into  that  fire. 

JVitnessrs. — If  a  man,  in  a  case  pending  judgment 
has  uttered  threats  against  the  witnesses  ...  if  that 
case  be  a  capital  suit,  that  man  shall  be  put  to  death. 

If  he  has  offered  corn  or  money  to  the  witnesses,  be 
shall  himself  bear  the  sentence  of  that  case, 


THE  AGE   OF   THE   PATllIARCIIS  45 

If  a  man  has  not  his  witnesses  near,  the  judge  shall 
set  him  a  fixed  time,  up  to  six  months,  and  if  within  six 
months  he  has  not  driven  in  his  witnesses,  that  man 
has  lied,  he  himself  shall  bear  the  blame  of  that  case. 

And  so  on,  and  so  on.  Where  all  is  so  interesting 
the  difliculty  is  to  know  what  to  omit.  If  any  reader 
still   flatters  himself  that  after  all  he  was  n 

,  .    ,  -  ,  Comparison 

born  mto  a  more  humane  and   enlightened  with  modern 
age  than  that  of  good  King  Hammurabi,  let  ^^^^' 
him  remember  that  this  code  of  laws  was  drawn  up 
2250  B.C.  more  than  four  thousand  years  ago.     And  even 
so,  what  a  strangely  modern  and  up-to-date  ring  there  is 
in  many  of  these  enactments.     The  marriage  laws  of 
Hammurabi  are  too  long  and  elaborate  to   be   quoted 
here ;  but  under  them  the  position  of  a  wife,  on   the 
whole,  need  not  at  all  fear  comparison  with  her  position 
to-day.     How  long  is  it  since  the   Married   Women's 
Property  Act  was  passed  ?     Hammurabi  anticipated  it. 
Landlords  in  their  relations  with   their   tenants   were 
not  more  favoured  then  than  they  are  now.     The  laws 
of  debt  were  more  considerate  then  than  they  were  just 
before  Dickens  wrote  "Little  Dorrit  "  and  ** Pickwick 
Papers."     Is   our    modern    treatment    of   burglars    so 
very   much  more  scientific   or  satisfactory    than    the 
Babylonian  ?    The  clauses  relative  to  breach  of  promise 
of  marriage  show  a  greater  sense  of  humour  and  of  the 
fitness  of  things  and  a  greater  regard  for  decency  than 
the   custom  of  modern  England.      Doctors  might  not 
approve  of  Hammurabi's  medical  laws— they  probably 
did  not  then — but  no  doubt  operations  were  fewer  and 
cheaper.      And  finally,  the  very  existence  of  all  those 
wonderful  ruins  gradually  being  unearthed  and  yielding 
so  rich  a  harvest,  is  sufficient  proof  of  the  excellent  effect 
of  the  laws  against  jerry-builders.     Did  the  code  show 


46 


THE  ANCIENT  WOBLD 


undue  severity  to  thieves  ?  At  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  a  man  stole  a  sheep  and  was  con- 
demned to  death.  On  second  thoughts,  the  sentence  was 
**  commuted  "  to  deportation  for  life  to  Botany  Bay,  the 
official  name  of  the  day  for  Hell.  His  wife,  wishing  to 
join  her  husband  and  seeing  no  other  way  to  attain  her 
object,  also  stole  a  napkin,  counting  on  the  same  penalty 
as  her  husband's.  The  law  thought  otherwise  :  it  would 
be  a  bad  precedent :  she  must  be  hanged.  And  she  was 
hanged.     That  happened  in  England  in  1815. 

Hammurabi  has  at  least  the  excuse  that  he  drew  up 
his  code  forty-two  centuries  earlier  and  twenty-three 
before  the  preaching  of  Christ.  Take  it  all  in  all,  the 
laws  give  ample  proof  not  only  of  method  and  legal  and 
financial  ability,  but  of  fairness,  thoughtfulness  and 
consideration.  The  Babylonian  monarch  knew  human 
nature,  and  was  one  of  the  world's  greatest  law-givers. 

If  anything  more  be  needed  to  complete  our  picture 
of  the  life  and  ideas  of  those  far-off  times,  it  is  to  be 
Hammurabi's  found  in  a  perusal  of  the  great  king's  letters, 
letters.  These  clay  tablets,  which  are  among  the 
oldest  pieces  of  Babylonian  writing,  are  fortunately 
quite  numerous,  and  may  be  seen  at  any  time  at  the 
British  Museum.  They  are  nearly  all  addressed  to 
high  officials  and  relate  to  a  variety  of  subjects :  the 
dispatch  of  tribute,  the  felling  of  trees  for  the  use  of 
metal-smelters,  the  dredging  of  canals,  the  repair  of  the 
Euphrates  banks,  the  providing  of  crews  for  barges,  the 
arrest  and  trial  of  officials  for  negligence  or  corrupt 
practices,  the  investigation  of  charges  of  theft,  the  correc- 
tion of  the  calendar,  the  inspection  of  sheep  and  cattle, 
the  collection  of  taxes,  the  payment  of  rent  for  land, 
the  conveyance  of  slaves,  etc.* 

♦  See  at  the  British  Museum,  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Eoom  Table- 
case  B.  ' 


THE  AGE  OF  THE  PATBIABCHS         47 

The  study  of  these  laws  and  letters  only  increases 
our  admiration  for  the  courage  and  unflinchintr  faith 
with  which  Abraham  exiled  himself  from  Abraham 
his  home  and  kindred  in  a  country  thus  emigrates, 
admirably  governed,  and  plunged  across  the  desert  into 
a  distant  and  incalculable  *'  Far  West."  It  is  true  the 
story  ni  Genesis  xiv.  suggests  that  the  country  round 
the  Jordan  was  under  the  jurisdiction  of  the  Babylonian 
potentate,  but,  on  the  other  hand,  the  same  account 
leads  us  to  suspect  that  his  authority  was  not 
unquestioningly  recognized  in  that  region.  The  battle 
of  four  kings  against  five  and  Lot's  capture  and 
rescue  are  indications  of  stirring  times  in  which 
security  of  hfe  and  property  was  subject  to  a  thrilling 
uncertainty. 

Even  in  this  advanced-and  scientific  age,  statesmen 
have  not  bean  able  entirely  to  preclude  the  Abraham 
possibility  of  famine.  The  government  of  ^^SYV^- 
Hammurabi  failed,  as  many  others  both  ancient  and 
modern  have  failed,  to  solve  this  problem.  So  Abraham 
was  driven  by  stress  of  famine  to  extend  his  wanderings 
into  Egypt;  and  we  may  note  in  passing  the  ease 
with  which  he  journeys  from  one  country  to  another. 
Ihere  was  assuredly  no  lack  of  commerce  and  friendly 
intercourse  between  Egypt  and  the  states  of  western 
Asia. 

An  immense  time,  nearly  two  thousand  years,  had 
elapsed  since  the  builders  of  the  great  pyramids  were 
laid  to  sleep  in  their  gigantic  sepulchres.  To  the  first 
ancestor  of  the  Hebrews  the  pyramids  of  Gizeh  were 
already  as  old  as  the  Arch  of  Titus  or  the  Colosseum 
IS  to  us.  But,  ancient  as  they  were,  they  did  not 
speak  of  a  vanished  race.  The  builders  were  gone,  but 
their  descendants  still  held  the  land  of  their  fathers, 
and  the  people  and  their  laws  and  customs  had  changed 


48 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


but  little.  The  great  pyramid-builders  belonged  to  the 
Fourth  Dynasty,  as  we  have  seen.  The  kings  of  the 
followhig  dynasties,  from  the  fifth  to  the  eleventh 
inclusive,  are  little  more  than  mere  names  to  us. 

Under  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  (2460-22G0b.c.  ?),  which 
perhaps  came  to  an  end  just  before  Abraham  crossed 
The  ti^e  border  in  quest  of  corn,*  Egypt  entered 

Dynis\^        "?^"   ^^®   ^^    *^®    notable    periods    of    her 
'^'       history,    of    which     numerous     substantial 
records  have  come  down  to  us.      The   names  of  this 
dynasty  are    alternately  Amenemhat    and    Usertesen. 
Many  beautiful  buildings   were   erected   at   Heliopolis 
(On).     Mines  were  worked  in  Nubia  and  the  peninsula  of 
Sinai.  Amenemhat  III.  besides  building  the  **  Labyrinth'* 
with  its  three  thousand  chambers,  half  of  them  under- 
ground, carried  out  what  was  probably  the  most  useful 
piece   of   public  work   undertaken  in   Egypt  down  to 
his  time,  the  construction  of  the  great  reservoir  called 
Moeris  ( '*  The  Great  Water  " ).     This  was  south  of  the 
Delta  and  west  of  the  Nile,  in  the  Fayoum  district. 
Amenemhat  had  realized  that  the  prosperity,  nay  the 
very  existence,  of  Egypt  depended  on  the  regularity  of 
the  Nile-flood.     Should  the  inundation  come  too  early  or 
too  late,  should  it  be  insufficient  or  excessive,  the  result 
in  each  case  was  ruin.     The  lake  Moeris,  which  was 
elaborately   constructed   with    canals    and    dams   and 
sluices,   was    intended  to   take  the   surplus   water  of 
excessive  inundations  and  store  it  up  against  a  possible 
shortage.     Fifteen  hundred  years  later  Darius,  King  of 
Persia,    carried    out    a    somewhat    similar   work    for 
water  distribution  in  the  highlands  of  Persia. 

*  The  point  cannot  he  settled  definitely  at  present.  In  his  latest 
estimate,  Professor  Flinders  Petrie  makes  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  come 
to  an  end  one  thousand  years  before  the  time  of  Hammurabi  and 
Abraham. 


THE  AGE   OF  THE  PATKIARCHS  49 

Of  records  of  this  period  two  at  least  call  for  notice 
One  IS  a  wall-painting  from  the  tomb  of  Chnumhetep 
a  prmce  m  the  reign  of  Usertesen   11.      It 
portrays  a  procession  of  Jewish-looking  men   S"''"," 
and  women  carrying  arms  and  musical  instru-   tlvetg^' 
ments,  and  loaded  baggage  animals.   A  hiero-    "^"<""- 

the  subject  of  the  picture  as  "  The  coming  to  bring  eye- 
Sf"*//'"f  *  -?— ,  people  of  the  Amu  bring'to 
him.  11,0  features  of  the  figures  are  undoubtedly 
Semitic:  one  more  indication  of  the  free  intereour  e 
existing  between  nation  and  nation  in  the  earliest  times 
The  arrival  in  Egypt  of  Abraham,  and  later  on  of  Tcob 
and  his  family,  were  not  isolated  or  extraordinary  eyents 

aJ^^.  "T'''^  ''  '''  ^"^^^•'Pt'°'^  ^•el-ti'^g  to 

luns  tl'ius:^'""''^^'"'""'  °^ «>«  Twelfth  Dynasty.    It 

gentle  disposition,  a  governor  who  loved  his  """*• 
city.  I  have  not  afflicted  the  child  of  the  poor,  nor  evilly 
entreated  widows  nor  dispossessed  owners  o  land  no^ 
driven  out  shepherds.  I  have  not  taken  aZ  Z 
farmer  s  men  for  my  own  work.  In  my  time  was  noni 
wretched,  none  starved,  even  in  the  yeai.  of  famh  e  for 
I  had  caused  all  the  fields  of  my  province  to  be  p Whed 

tTereT^Non^'i'";^'^"'^^*^"''^^-*'^-^'^^^^^^^^^^^^ 
thereof,    fs one  suffered  hunger;   I  gave  equally  to  the 

widow  and  to  her  that  had  a  husband ;  I  preferred  not 

the  great  man  to  the  lowly  in  all  that  I  gave     wTen    1 

floods  of  the  Nile  were  great,  he  that  hadTown.The"  me 

TZZf''?  T'i  '  ^epj  -thingfrom  the  p^du" 
01  t^e  field,  t  Truly  a  noble  record  and  examnlP 
speaking  to  us  across  a  gulf  of  four  thousand  years^' 

E 


i 


50 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


But  we  are  not  left  to  wall-paintings  or  epitaphs  or 
remains  of  dykes  and  dams  for  our  conception  of  the 
Kahun,  an    ^ojpt  of  the  Twelfth   Dynasty.     Thanks   to 
Egyptian      the   fortunate  and  remarkable  discoveries  of 
Pompeu.       Professor  Flinders   Petrie,*  we  need  not   be 
content  with  broad   outlines,  but  can  fill  in  even  the 
details  of  the  picture  and  make  it,  so  to  speak,  step  out 
of  its  frame  and  live  and   speak.     At   Kahun,  in   the 
Fayoum   district,  after  exploring  the  unique  pyramid, 
which  differs  from  all   others  in  that   its   lower  part 
consists  of  natural  rock  cut  into  shape,  Professor  Petrie 
unearthed  a  small  Imt  complete  town  of  the  Twelfth 
Dynasty.    It    is   a  kind  of  Egyptian   Pompeii.      The 
remains  at  the  foot  of  Vesuvius,   lately  recovered  from 
the  deep  layer  of  volcanic  ashes,  have  revealed  to  our 
gaze  a  fashionable  Roman  watering-place   of  the   first 
century  a.d.      The  excavations   at   Kahun    have    laid 
bare  an  Egyptian  town  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  more 
than  two  thousand  years  older  than  its  Roman  counter- 
part.     It   has  slept  under  its  covering  of  desert  sand 
secure    against    either  destruction  or   alteration,    and 
now,    quite    imconscious   of  its   long   sleep,    like   Rip 
van  Winkle,  it  wakes  up  looking  as   it   did   when   it 
fell   asleep.      The   town   was   evidently   orginally  built 
for  the  use  of  the  men  employed  in  the  construction 
of  the  neighbouring  pyramid.     It  was  square  and  walled. 
There  were  main  and  side-streets.    The  larger  houses 
had   courtyards   surrounded    with    pillars.    The    roofs 
consisted  of  beams  covered  with  mud-plaster  and  straw, 
but  innumerable  examples  were  found  of  brick  arches] 
thus  proving  that  the  principle  of  the  arch  was  known 
and  in  common  use  before  2000  r.c.     Among  the  count- 
less finds  were  tools  of  all  sorts,  both  copper  and  flint, 
coffins,  necklaces,  ivory  statuettes  and  other   carvings,' 

♦  "  Ten  Years'  Digging  in  Egypt,"  by  Prof.  W.  M.  Flinders  Petrie. 


THE  AGE   OF  THE   PATRIARCHS  51 

balls  of  thread,  linen  cloth,  knives,  copper  mirrors,  fishing- 
nets.  In  the  rubbish-heaps  were  papyri,  pages  of  medical 
and  vetermary  works,  private  letters  and  accounts,  etc. 
Ihere  were  agricultural  implements  of  every  description, 
rakes,  hoes,  sickles,  grain-winnowcrs,  wooden  fire-drills' 
and  brick-moulds.     Last,  but  not  least,  many  kinds  of 
games,  such  as  whip-tops,  tip-cats,  draughts  and  dolls 
show  how  little  child-nature  has  changed  since  Usertesen 
II.  housed  his  workmen  and  their  families  by  the  site 
of  his  pyramid. 

Nor  is  this  all.     Not   only  have   we  the   pyramids 
before  our  eyes,  and  the  houses  of  the  builders  of  them 
with  their  tools  and  even  their  children's  toys,    Egyptian  ' 
but  we  even  know  the  kind  of  stories  which   fiction?*'' 
were  told  round  the  family  hearth  in  those  remote  ages 
to  while  away  the  winter  evenings.     Professor  Flinders 
Petrie,   to  whom   all  lovers   of  Egypt   are   so    deeply 
indebted,   has   translated   and   collected,   in  two  little 
volumes,  talcs  of  magic,  tales  of  town  and  country  life 
of  courtiers  and  peasants,  of  love  and  hate  and  thrilling' 
adventure,  which  make  the   most   delightful   readin^r  * 
There  are  stories  belonging  to  the  Fifth,  Sixth,  Tenth,  and 
Twelfth  Dynasties,  which  therefore  give  us  an  insicrht 
into  Egyptian  life  before  and  down  to  the  time  of  Abra- 
ham.    Every  student  of  history  knows  how  much  more 
IS  to  be  learnt  from  popular  stories  than  from  official 
records  of  the  real  or  imaginary  exploits  of  kings. 

Among  tales  of  magic,  Hordedef's  Tale  introduces  us 
to  an  interesting  character  called  Dedi,  who  was  110 
years  old,  consumed  daily  500  loaves,  a  side 
of  beef,  and  a  hundred  draughts  of  beer,  and  '"^l^l^lns" 
consequently,  as  would  be  exjiected  of  him,  ^o^^th 
possessed  unusual  powers,  including  that  of  ^^''^'^^• 
restoring  a  severed  head  to  its  body.     In  another  story 

Egyptian  Tales,"  two  series  (published  by  INIethuen,  1895). 


i 


52 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


V 


1r 


■il 


a  wax  crocodile  turns  into  a  very  real  animal  and  devours 
a  faithless  wife's  lover,  while  in  a  third,  a  magician  piles 
one  half  of  a  lake  on  the  other,  thus  gaining  access  to  the 
bottom  and  recovering  a  lost  jewel  belonging  to  a  lady 
of  the  court  of  King  Seneferu.  These  tales  are  all  very 
ancient  and  have  a  historical  background  referring  to 
the  Fourth  Dynasty,  that  of  the  great  pyramid- 
builders. 

Two  thousand  years  later,  belonging  to  the  Twelfth 
Dynasty,  the  age  of  Illahun,  our  Egyptian  Pompeii,  we 
Twelfth        have  ''  The  Shipwrecked  Sailor,"  and  ''  The 

?a^s!* •' The '^'^^'^^^^^^'^^  ^^  Sanehat."     The   former  has 
Shipwrecked  very  much  the  flavour  of  an  Arabian  Nights' 
Sailor."         entertainment,    with    its    description   of  an 
island  tenanted  by  a  serpent  thirty  cubits   long,  with 
a  beard  of  two  cubits  and  a  body  overlaid  with  gold, 
endowed  with  human  speech  and  a  mild  and  benevolent 
disposition.     The  other  story  is  less  fantastic  and  more 
*'Adven-       interesting  and  instructive.     It  tells  how  on 
Sanehat."      *^^  ^^^^^^^  ^f  the  Pharaoh  young  Sanehat  llees 
pjieiune      ^^'^^  '^^JV^  into  Palestine,  which  he  finds 
flowing  with  milk  and  honey  and  well  stocked 
besides  with  figs,  grapes,  olives,  barley,'  wheat  and  cattle. 
He   makes  himself  useful    and    becomes    important, 
marries  a  tribal  chief's  eldest  daughter,  and  is  made 
commander-in-chief  of  his  father-in-law's   army.      His 
career  is  the  converse  of  Joseph's  on  a  smaller  scale. 
His  life  among  the  friendly  Canaanites  is  well  described! 
At  one  time  he  kills  a  redoubtable  local  bully  in  a  duel 
which  anticipates  by  a  thousand  years  and  more  that 
between  David  and  the  gigantic  Philistine.    But,  for  all 
his  prosperity,  the  Egyptian  is  home-sick,  and  petitions 
the  new  Pharaoh.     In  reply  he  is  cordially  invited  to 
return,   is  welcomed  and  ft'ted  at  the  palace,  granted 
a  house,  slaves,  and  a  pension,  and  at  his    death    a 


THE  AGE   OF  THE   PATBIARCHS  53 

pyramid  and  a  statue  inlaid  with  gold.  As  Professor 
Petrie  says,  the  tale  is  most  valuable  as  giving  us  a 
simple  **  picture  of  life  in  Palestine  and  Egypt  """in  the 
period  not  long  before  the  days  of  Abraham! 

Such  was  the  country  and  such  the  people  visited  by 
the   -  Father  of  the  Faithful."    Abraham,  as  Genesis 
informs  us,  was  well  and  generously  treated 
by  the  reigning  Pharaoh,  who  had  been  given   te'n^Tto 
to  understand  by  the  astute  Hebrew  that  the    ^^^estine. 
handsome  Sarah   was  his    sister,  and  was  accordingly 
anxious   to  keep  on   good  terms   with   her   *' brother." 
But  the   deception  was   detected,  and  the   over-clever 
stranger  was  politely  escorted  back  to  the  frontier  with 
his  wife,  bag  and  baggage.    He  does  not  ^.em  to  have 
repented  of  the  trick,   as   we  find   him  a  little  later 
practising  it  again  on  the  King  of  Gerar.     Be  that  as  it 
may,  he  returned  to  Canaan  enormously  richer  than 
he  left   it.    Uncle  and   nephew    could   now  no  longer 
conveniently  and    without  unpleasantness    share    the 
same  encampment  and  pastures.     Lot  separated  from 
Abraham  and  settled  in  the  Plain  of  Jordan. 

But  in  no  long  time  he  had  cause  to  regret  the 
quarrelsomeness  of  his  herdsmen  on  the  uplands  of  Ai, 
when  one  of  those   events    occurred    which  Hammurabi's 
help  us  to  connect  the  Biblical  records  with  ^^id. 
contemporary  ancient    history    as    gradually  revealed 
through  exploration  and  the  decipherment  of  monuments. 
Hammurabi,   the   powerful   king  of  Babylon    already 
referred  to  (called  in  Genesis  xiv.  Amraphel,  King  of 
Shinar),   with    three  vassal  kings   and  their  armies, 
suddenly   appeared   in   south   Canaan  on  a    punitive 
expedition   against  a  confederacy  of  five  rebel  kings 
includmg  the  ruler  of  Sodom,  in  whose  territory  Lot 
was  dwellmg.     The  rebels  were  routed  and  Lot  carried 
ott  with  the  rest  of  the  booty.    Abraham  had  by  this 


54 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


fi 


time  become  a  man  of  substance  and  power,  as  is 
proved  by  the  fact  that  on  hearing  this  news  he  hastily 
armed  three  hundred  and  eighteen  of  his  own  retainers, 
pursued  the  retreating  invaders,  fell  upon  their  camp  at 
night,  and  rescued  his  captive  nephew. 

The  history  of  Egypt,  with  its  alternation  of  con- 
spicuous and  obscure  periods,  may  be  hkened  to  a  series 
The  "Dark  ^^  brilliantly  illuminated  rooms  connected 
Ages "  of  by  totally  dark  or  dimly-lit  corridors  of  vary- 
Stor^*^  ing  lengths.  Through  the  dark  porch  and 
vestibule  of  the  prehistoric  age  we  are 
ushered  into  the  brilliant  hall  of  the  pyramid-builders 
of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  where  the  daylight  pours  in, 
giving  life  and  reaUty  to  the  pictures  and  statues  along 
the  walls.  Then  follows  a  long  corridor  plunged  in 
almost  total  darkness,  by  which  we  grope  our  way 
through  the  Fifth  and  following  Dynasties  to  the 
Eleventh,  till  we  issue  again  into  the  dazzling  light  of 
the  Twelfth,  where  we  made  our  last  halt.  On  resuming 
our  journey  of  exploration,  we  once  more  find  ourselves 
threading  our  Wciy  along  a  dimly-lit  passage.  The 
darkness  is  not  complete,  for  here  and  there  a  window 
has  been  cut,  through  which  a  shaft  of  light  darts  in 
and  makes  a  bright  patch  on  the  wall  opposite, 
reveahng  the  pictures  in  every  detail  and  making  the 
writing  easily  legible.  Thus  the  vivid  narratives  in  the 
book  of  Genesis  come  as  a  pleasing  contrast  to  the 
obscurity  which  otherwise  wraps  round  the  period, 
five  hundred  or  six  hundred  years,  from  the  Thirteenth 
to  the  Seventeenth  Dynasty,  the  **Dark  Ages"  of 
Egyptian  history. 

Since  Abraham's  visit  in  search  of  corn  much  had 
happened.  Other  visitors,  of  kindred  race  but  not  so 
peacefully  inclined  as  the  stranger  from  Ur,  had  crossed 
the    border.      Egypt    had    been  invaded   and  almost 


THE  AGE   OF   THE  PATRIARCHS 


55 


entirely  subjugated  by  Asiatic  nomads,  known  to  history 
as  the   Hyksos  or   Shepherd-kings.      Unfor-   ^^ 
tunately,  not  very  much  is  known  of  these   Hyksos 
conquerors.     The   name   Hyksos,   by  which    ^o^^^^tion. 
they   are    commonly  designated,    is    supposed    to  be 
derived  from  Hiq-Shausu,  meaning  **Iungs  of  Robbers," 
or  ^' Kings  of  Shepherds."     They  were  a  Semitic  race, 
hailing  either  from  Arabia  or  possibly  from  the  sources 
of  the  Halys  and  the  Euphrates  (the  modern  Armenia), 
in  which   case    they  may   have    been  related  to  the 
Hittites,  and  entered  Egypt  by  way  of  the  Isthmus  of 
Suez,  where  they  subsequently  estabUshed  an  immense 
fortified  camp  at  Avaris.*     They  came  with  horses  and 
chariots,  both  quite  unknown  in  Egypt  before  that  time, 
and  with  bows  and  arrows,  and  seem  to  have  made  an 
easy  conquest.    But  it  is  not    certain  that  they  ever 
held  the  whole  of  Egypt  under  their  sway.     Lower  {i.e. 
Northern)  Egypt  they  had  completely  in  their  power,  and 
fixed  their  new  capital  at  Tanis ;  Upper  Egypt  perhaps 
for  a  time  belonged   to  them   also.      But    here    the 
national  spirit   was   never   crushed,  and  it  was  from 
Thebes,  the  southern  capital,  that  the  resistance  came 
which  made  their  tenure  of  power  always  precarious  and 
finally  expelled  them  across   that  very  isthmus  which 
they   had   crossed  in   triumph    five    hundred    or    six 
hundred  years  before. 

This  foreign  domination  of  half  a  thousand  years 
makes  a  sad  break  in  the  continuity  of  Egyptian  history, 

*  The  site  has  been  discovered  by  Prof.  Flinders  Petrie  (see  his 
"  Egypt  and  Israel,"  p.  18)  at  Tel-el- Yehudiyeh,  twenty  miles  north  of 
Cairo.  It  is  a  huge  square  enclosed  by  an  earth  bank  150-200  feet  thick 
and  45  feet  high,  and  a  quarter  of  a  mile  long  each  way.  There  is  no  trace 
of  stone  or  timber  or  brick  in  the  whole  construction.  There  is  no 
regular  gate.  The  entrance  was  by  a  long  sloping  causeway,  200  feet 
long,  flanked  by  long  projecting  walls,  and  so  easily  defended  by  a 
deadly  cross-fire. 


56 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Some  facts,  however,  we  can  gather.  They  arrived  after 
the  end  of  the  Fourteenth  Dynasty.  The  Fifteenth 
Dynasty  which  reigned  in  Thehes  offered  a  successful 
resistance  to  the  foreigners,  and  it  would  seem  that 
throughout  the  Hyksos  occupation  of  Northern  Egypt, 
native  Egyptian  dynasties  continued  to  sit  on  the  throne 
of  the  Pharaohs  in  Thebes.  We  find  periods  in  which 
there  are  records  of  two  parallel  series  of  Kings,  Hyksos 
and  Theban.  The  Hyksos  capital  was  at  Tanis.  The 
invaders  were  worshippers  of  Baal,  ''  Lord  of  All  "  ;  they 
were  brutal  and  only  half-civilized;  and  they  were  of 
course  hated,  being  known  as  the  "  Plagues  "  or  "  Pests." 
Being  foreigners  unfamiliar  with  the  language  and 
customs  of  the  land,  and  being  too  proud  or  too  lazy  to 
learn  them,  they  were  content,  like  the  Hanoverian 
George  I.  in  our  own  country,  to  leave  matters  very  much 
in  the  hands  of  capable  ministers  or  viceroys. 

All  this  tallies  well  with  the  Bible  story  of  Joseph. 
Old  tradition  says  that  the  Israelites  arrived  in  the  reign 
The  ^^  *^^  Hyksos  king  Apepi.     Now  the  Hyksos 

Hebrews  in    invaders  were  Semites,  and  the  arrival   of 
^yP^-  Joseph  and  later  of  Jacob    and  his  family 

during  their  rule  would  explain  the  wonderful  career  of 
the  famous  minister  and  the  cordial  welcome  extended  to 
the  Israelites.  Joseph,  we  are  told,  was  made  the  second 
ruler  in  the  land,*  and  was  no  doubt  one  of  those 
viceroys  of  whom  we  hear  as  practically  governing  the 
country  under  the  Hyksos  Lings.  Again,  Joseph  warns 
his  father  and  brothers  to  tell  the  Pharaoh  that  they  are 
shepherds  :  the  ''  shepherd  kings  "  would  naturally  have 
a  soft  spot  in  their  hearts  for  men  of  that  occupation. 
And  lastly,  the  land  of  Goshen  where  Jacob  and  his 
family  were  settled,  was  effectually  commanded  by  the 
great  entrenched  camp  of  Avaris,  which  would  obviate 

*  Gen.  xli.  40. 


THE  AGE   OF  THE   PATRIARCHS  57 


Joseph. 


any  risks  arising  from  a  grant  of  rich  pastures  to  the 
newcomers. 

Joseph,  a  foreigner,  a  slave,  and  a  convict,  had  by  an 
inspiration  escaped  from  the  darkness  and  solitude  of 
an  unmerited  dungeon  into  the  full  blaze  of 
a  brilliant  court  and  the  favour  of  the  "  Son  of 
the  Sun "  himself,  and  by  his  administrative  and 
financial  genius  had  saved  a  great  country  from  the 
brink  of  economic  ruin.  There  was  no  honour  and  no 
power  which  the  Pharaoh  thought  too  great  a  reward 
for  such  services.  '' '  Thou  shalt  be  over  my  house,' 
said  he  to  Joseph,  *  and  acording  unto  thy  word  shall  all 
my  people  be  ruled  ;  only  in  the  throne  will  I  be  greater 
than  thou.'  And  Pharaoh  said  unto  Joseph,  *  See,  I 
have  set  thee  over  all  the  land  of  Egypt.'  And 
Pharaoh  took  off  his  signet-ring  from  his  hand,  and  put 
it  upon  Josei:)li's  hand,  and  arrayed  him  in  vestures  of 
fine  linen,  and  put  a  gold  chain  about  his  neck,  and  he 
made  him  to  ride  in  the  second  chariot  which  he  had ; 
and  they  cried  before  him,  '  Bow  the  knee  ' ;  and  he 
set  him  over  all  the  land  of  Egypt."  * 

The  details  of  Joseph's  administration  are  given  us  in 
Genesis  xli.  46-57  and  xlvii.  13-26.  By  successive  steps 
he  made  his  royal  master  the  sole  capitalist  His  adminis- 
and  the  sole  landowner  in  the  realm  with  the  Oration, 
single  exception  of  the  priests.  Well  might  the  king's 
gratitude  be  unbounded.  And  the  minister  on  whom  he 
showered  honours  was  a  young  man  of  thirty.  Nor  was 
he  a  favourite  at  court  only.  The  people  throughout 
the  length  and  breadth  of  the  land  regarded  him  as  the 
saviour  of  their  lives.  With  the  powerful  priestly  caste 
he  had  allied  himself  by  marrying  the  daughter  of  a 
priest  of  Heliopolis,  and  had  secured  their  friendship  by 
exempting  their  estates  from  the  wholesale  purchase  of 

*  Gen.  xU.  41-43. 


58 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


land  on  behalf  of  the  crown  in  the  years  of  famine. 
Some  part  of  his  popularity  inevitably  extended  to  his 
father  and  brothers,  and  the  Israelites'  settlement  in 
Goshen  was  left  in  undisturbed  possession  for  many 
generations. 


/ 


CHAPTER  IV 

A    PHILOSOPHER  KING  (14tH  CENTURY  B.C.) 

Saints  of  hoary  eld, 
Who  by  old  Nile  or  the  Chaldaean  plain, 
Through  grave  lives  lighted  by  a  certain  hope, 

. passed  to  life 

Dim  centuries,  ere  yet  the  Lawgiver 
Strode  from  the  fiery  Hill  with  face  aflame, 
Down  to  the  listening  Tribes. 

— Lewis  Morris,  "  Vision  of  Saints." 


(( ) 


Tis  an  ill  wind  that  blows  nobody  good."      The  rule 
of  the  Hyksos  or  Shepherd-kings  had  brought  to  Egypt 
increased  trade,  and  the  use  of  rings  of  gold,    The  anti- 
silver  and  bronze  as  money  to  facilitate  inter-    ^y^sos 

''  movement : 

national  exchange.*  It  had  established  the  Seventeenth 
king  as,  with  the  exception  of  the  priesthood,  ^^^^^ty. 
the  sole  landowner,  which  fact  once  accomplished  was 
maintained  as  a  constitutional  principle  by  subsequent 
Egyptian  Pharaohs.  It  had  introduced  the  horse, 
hitherto  unknown,  and  afterwards  found  so  useful  by 
great  Egyptian  conquerors,  as  their  monuments  testify. 
But  the  fact  remained  that  the  "  shepherds "  were 
foreigners,  and  foreigners  the  Egyptian  could  not  abide. 
Upper  or  southern  Egypt,  as  we  have  seen,  was  never 
thoroughly  subdued  by  the  Asiatic  invaders,  and  it 
continued  throughout  the  foreign  occupation  to  nurse 
resistance  more  or  less  open.  At  last  the  native  rulers 
of  Thebes,  claiming  to  be  the  rightful  Pharaohs,  broke 

*  Evidences  of  this  have  been  found  as  far  apart  as  Crete  and 
Bagdad, 

59 


I 


60 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


A  PHILOSOPHER-KING 


61 


m 


out  in  open  rebellion.  The  mummy  of  Sequenenre  III. 
of  the  17th  (Theban)  dynasty,  which  has  actually  been 
found,  with  its  head  frightfully  hacked,  bears  visible 
evidence  of  the  desperate  battle  with  the  Ilyksos  in 
which  he  lost  his  life.  He  had  refused  a  request  of 
Apepi  11.  the  Ilyksos  king,  for  men  and  materials  for  a 
great  temple  to  the  god  Sutech. 

The  Seventeenth  Dynasty  raised  the  standard  in  this 
national  movement  and  started  the  cry  of  **  Egypt  for 
The  the  Egyptians,"  but  it  was  reserved  for  the 

Hyksos-  Eighteenth  Dynasty  to  complete  the  work  of 
eipfuedr  emancipation.  Ahmes,  a  prince  of  royal 
Eighteenth  blood,  served  under  Sequenenre  as  the  captain 
of  a  ship  called  the  Calf  in  the  long 
campaign  against  the  Ilyksos  Apepi.  He  won  high 
distinction  in  the  fighting  around  Avaris,  and  it  was 
largely  owing  to  his  exploits  that  the  Ilyksos  invaders 
were  finally  driven  out  of  the  country.  Sequenenre  being 
killed  in  action,  Ahmes  was  elected  king  of  the  country 
he  had  so  ably  delivered,  and  became  the  founder  of  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty  (about  1580  b.c),  the  first  of  the 
*'New  Empire." 

This  dynasty,  which  shares  with  the  Fourth  (that  of 
the  Pyramid-builders)  and  the  Nineteenth  (that  of 
Queen  Bameses   the   Great    and  the    Exodus)    the 

Hatshetsup,  distinction  of  being  the  most  popularly  known 
atasu).  ^£  ^^^  ^^^^j  houses  of  Egypt,  contains  several 
great  names.  Amenhotep  I.  and  Thothmes  I.  showed 
themselves  capable  soldiers  and  made  expeditions  into 
Syria  and  even  Mesopotamia,  conquering  as  far  as  the 
Orontes  and  the  Euphrates.  Then  came  the  joint  rule 
of  Thothmes  II.  and  his  sister  Hatshetsup  (Hatasu), 
quickly  followed  by  the  sole  rule  of  the  latter.  This 
remarkable  woman,  one  of  the  few  queens  of  antiquity 
whose  names  have  been  preserved,  was  as  resolute  as 


she  was  ambitious.  She  adopted  every  device  to  conceal 
her  sex.  She  changed  the  termination  of  her  name 
from'^  Chief  of  the  Favourites"  to  ''  Chief  of  the  Nobles."* 
She  wore  male  attire  on  all  public  occasions.  On 
monuments  she  caused  herself  to  be  pictured  with  bare 
shoulders,  no  breasts,  a  short  loin-cloth,  close-cut  hair 
and  a  false  beard.  Above  all,  she  governed  with  a  virile 
firmness  of  hand. 

She  was  succeeded  by  her  younger  brother,  one  of 
the  most  famous  of  Egyptian  kings,   Thothmes  III. 
deservedly  called  '*  the  Great,"  under  whom 
the  Empire  reached  its  zenith.     He  carried   in.^^hf 
his  victorious  arms  as  far  as  Nineveh  on  the    ^^®^'- 
Tigris.     Ethiopia,  Syria,  Pho3nicia,  Cyprus,  and  even 
Crete  sent  their  yearly  tribute  to  his  court  at  Thebes. 
The  capital  was  filled  with  the  rich  spoils  of  triumphant 
wars.      To    the    average    Englishman    the    name    of 
Thothmes  III.  is  not  as  familiar  as  it  deserves  to  be,  as 
that  of  the  monarch  who  caused  the  erection,  over  three 
thousand  years  ago,  of  the  obelisk  now  standing  on  the 
Thames  Embankment,  and  popularly,  and,  of'' course, 
inaccurately,  known  as  "  Cleopatra's  Needle." 

Amenhotep    11.    was    remarkable    chiefly    for    his 
ferocious   temper.     Thothmes  IV.'s  principal  achieve- 
ment was  the  restoration  of  the  Sphinx  by 
clearing  away  the  mountain  of  desert  sand    ul^^^ 
which  over-busy  or  indifferent  predecessors    successors, 
had  allowed  to  bury  that  prehistoric  monument  whose 
age  and  origin  are  still  a  mystery.     Amenhotep  HI.  up- 
held the  name  of  the  dynasty  for  military  prowess,' and 
was,  besides,  a  great  sportsman.     He  fought  success- 
fully in  Ethiopia  and  Mesopotamia,  where  he  claims  to 
have  killed  210  lions  with  his  own  hand.   Thothmes  IV., 
who  seems  to  have  had  some  notion  of  diplomacy,  had 

*  See  INIaspcro,  "  The  Struggle  of  the  Nations,"  p.  23G. 


i 


62 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


soiigbt  to  strengthen  his  northern  frontiers  by  marrying 
the  daughter  of  the  King  of  Mitanni,  a  North-Syrian 
state.  Amenhotep  III.  now  followed  his  father's 
example,  and  married  Tiy,  the  daughter  of  a  Syrian 
royal  prince,  Yuaa,  who  had,  no  doubt,  come  in  the 
following  of  the  Mitanni  princess  and  was  very  powerful 
at  court.  The  King  of  Mitanni,  for  his  part,  found  the 
alliance  profitable  enough.  Egypt  was  rich,  and  its 
king  generous. 

The  Empire  was  at  its  height.  The  capital,  Thebes, 
presented  a  marvellous  picture  of  luxurious  magnifi- 
Amenhotep  ^^^^®*  "^^^^  palace  built  for  Queen  Tiy,*  on 
iv.'s  boy-  the  west  bank  of  the  Nile,  opposite  the  city, 
^°°^'  with    its    romantic    lake,     its     beautifully 

coloured  pavements  and  wall  and  ceiling  decorations  (of 
which  remains  still  exist),  must  have  been  one  of  the 
loveliest  and  most  entrancing  spots  on  earth.  Here  it 
was  that  Amenhotep  IV.  was  born  and  spent  his  early 
childhood.  The  circumstances  surrounding  his  entrance 
into  life  were  certainly  remarkable.  Through  his 
mother  he  was  half  a  Syrian.  From  his  father, 
Amenhotep  III.,  ''the  ^fagnificent,"  who  died  after  a 
reign  of  thirty-six  years,  at  the  early  age  of  forty-eight, 
he  inherited  a  sickly  constitution.  His  skull  was  mis- 
shapen, and  he  was  subject  to  epileptic  fits.  His  father 
on  his  deathbed  had  married  him  to  Tadukhipa, 
daughter  of  the  King  of  ^Mitanni  (probably  a  Hittite 
tribe),  thus  renewmg  and  strengthening  an  old  alliance. 
The  little  princess,  who  was  re-named  Nefertiti,  was 
only  nine  years  old,  and  her  bridegroom  not  more  than 
ten  or  eleven  !  In  spite  or  because  of  his  poor  health, 
young  Amenhotep  grew  up  meditative  and  philosophical, 

*  For  fuller  details  on  the  life  of  Amenhotep  IV.  (Akhnaton)  see 
A.  E.  P.  Weigall,  "  Life  and  Times  of  Akhnaton,  Pharaoh  of  Egypt  " 
(Blackwood),  from  which  the  facts  here  set  down  are  drawn. 


A  PHILOSOPHEB-KING 


63 


} 


dreaming  his  own  dreams,  and  communing  ceaselessly 
with  his  own  soul  on  the  mysteries  of  life  and  religion. 

Egypt,  as  is  well  known,  recognized  an  incredible 
number  of  gods,  some  of  whom  individually  boasted  an 
incredible  number  of  titles.     Most  of  these    ^. 
gods   were   originally   local.      In   the   whole    priests  of 
immense  hierarchy  of  deities  at  this  time,    ^"^°°- 
there  stood  out  two  great  and  prominent  rivals,  Amon, 
the  god  of  Thebes,  and  Ba,  the  god  of  Heliopolis.    Now, 
as  was  only  natural,  the  fortunes  of  the  gods  varied  in 
direct  proportion  to  those  of  their  worshippers,  and  the 
supremacy  of  the  Theban  dynasties  of  Pharaohs  had 
made  Amon  the  paramount  god  of  Egypt,  supplant- 
ing the  much  older  head  of  the  gods,  Ea,  the  supreme 
deity  of  the  Pyramid-builders  and  the  ten  Memphite 
dynasties  of  the  ''  Old  Empire.'*     But  the  kings  of  the 
Eighteenth    Dynasty,   who   expelled    the    Hyksos   and 
restored  Egypt  to  the  Egyptians,  saw  that  in  forming 
and  welding  a  nation  diplomacy  was  as  important  as 
force.     Accordingly,  to  make  the  Theban  god  Amon 
acceptable  to  the  rest  of  Egypt,  and  to  veil  the  hard 
fact  of  his  supremacy,  they  identified   him  with  the 
older  northern  god,  Ba,  under  the  double  name  Amon- 
Ba.     For  all  this  diplomatic  tact,  however,  Amon,  the 
god  of  the  ruling  city,  or,  rather,  his  priesthood,  was,  in 
fact,  paramount.     The  priests  of  Ba  at  Heliopolis  felt 
this  and  resented  it,  and,  being  human,  more  or  less 
openly  showed  their  resentment.     The  priests  of  Amon, 
in  turn,  feared  their  discontent  and  were  uncomfortable 
and  suspicious,  and  the  more  tenacious  of  their  privi- 
leges the  more  these  were  assailed. 

Amenhotep  IV.,  old  for  his  years  and  much  given  to 
thought,  soon  found  the  priests  of  Amon  intolerable. 
They  were  immensely  wealthy  and  proportionately  cor- 
rupt  and  arrogant.     Like   the  Church  of  the   Middle 


64 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Ages,  tlioy  had  grown  luxurious  and  self-indulgent,  and 
Amenhotep  ^'^^'  ^^^^^*^  Concerned  with  the  affairs  of  a 
determines    Worldly  than  a  heavenly  kingdom.  The  relitrion 

Beformation.  ^^  ^^'^^^^^*  ^^^^^  ^^^^^'^  ^^^  trustees  and  exponents 
was  comiilicated,  conventional,  and  cold. 
The  hungry  sheep  looked  up  and  were  not  fed.  The 
young  king  felt  hoth  a  political  and  a  religious  motive 
spurring  him  to  action.  Tlie  worldly  amhition  of  these 
opulent  priests  must  he  curhed,  and  the  longing  of  the 
more  enlightened  classes  for  more  freedom  of  thought 
satisfied. 

History  taught  Amenhotep  that  Ea  w\as  the  more 
ancient  god  and  Anion  a  comparatively  recent  usurper. 
The  new  As  a  countermove  to  the  presumption  of  the 
doctrine.  priests  of  Amoii,  who  were  forever  scheming 
to  suhordinate  Ra  and  his  priesthood  to  their  own  god 
and  hierarchy,  he  set  up  a  doctrine  which  seemed  at 
first  sight  to  he  a  restoration  with  slight  modifications 
of  the  ancient  worship  of  Ra.  The  god  hore  the  name 
Ra-Horakti-Aton,  or  more  shortly,  Aton.  Thus  the 
change  looked  on  the  surface  like  a  conservative  reaction 
and  return  to  the  old-estahlished  order  of  thin^^s.  J3ut 
appearances,  then  as  now,  were  often  deceptive. 

The  religion  of  Aton  (the  Solar  Disk)  was  not  a  thing 
of  surface.  It  went  deep  to  the  root  of  things.  It  was 
not  a  restoration,  hut  a  reformation.  Young  as  he  was 
the  dreamer-king,  in  his  prolonged  meditations,  had 
lifted  a  corner  of  the  veil  and  had  had  a  vision  of  the 
truth,  a  glimpse  of  the  Infinite,  far  in  advance  of  any- 
thing vouchsafed  to  any  mortal  hefore  his  time.  At 
first,  his  new  deity  was  merely  one  among  many,  a  new 
elevation  to  an  old-estahlished  and  venerahle  house  of 
peers.  But  soon,  for  his  thoughts  matured  rapidly,  he 
made  for  it  the  claim  to  he  alone,  the  only  deity  and 
ruler  of  the  world,  without  any  equal,  or  even  second. 


A  PHILOSOrHER-KING 


65 


His  notion  of  Aton  hecame  more  spiritualized.  It 
was  no  longer  the  ])isk  of  the  Sun,  hut  something 
ahstract  and  intangihle,  "the  heat  or  power  which 
is  in  the  Disk."  He  did  not  worship  the  sun,  but 
the  great  Power  which  is  behind  the  sun,  and  behind 
the  whole  universe,  the  great  source  and  spring  of 
all  life  and  energy,  and  of  which  the  visible  "and 
resplendent  sun  is  merely  a  convenient  and  appropriate 
symbol. 

The  priests,  as  was  to  be  expected,  looked  askance  at 
the  innovation.     The  king  was  branded  as  a   pinai 
heretic.     For  some  years  he  bore  with  them,    rupture 
hut  at  last,  when  he  was  seventeen,  his  patience    iheba^n  ^ 
was  at  an  end.     He   broke  with   them   and   priesthood, 
repudiated  Amon  and  his  rites.     He  discarded  his  own 
name  of  Amenhotep,  and  adopted  that  of  Akhnaton, 
*'  the  Glory  of  Aton."    Further,  he  abandoned  his  capital 
of  Thebes,  and  built  for  himself  the  entirely  new  "  City 
of  the  Horizon  of  Aton,"  Akhetaton,  on  the  site  of  the 
present   Tel-el-Amarna.     At   the   age    of  nineteen,   he 
removed  thither  with  his  court  and  never  returned  to 
Thebes. 

In  his  new  surroundings,  where,  if  he  did  not  meet 
with  complete  sympathy,  at  least  he  was  free  from 
opposition,  he  gave  free  rein  to  his  religious  insj^iration. 
He  quietly  elaborated  his  new  doctrine,  which  has  been 
called  ^^"  the  most  enlightened  doctrine  of  the  ancient 
world."  *  The  symbol  of  the  new  religion  was  a  repre- 
sentation of  the  sun's  disk  with  descending  rays,  each 
ray  terminating  in  a  human  hand. 

But  it  was  merely  a  convenient  symbol  :  a  metaphor 
containing  a  great  and  deep  truth.  God  w^as  the  invisi- 
ble, intangible  author  and  motive  power  of  all  things, 
permeating  time    and   space.     The    young    Pharaoh's 

♦  Weigall,  op.  cit.p.  115. 

F 


60 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


thoughts  were  not  far  removed  from  the  mind  of  Moore 
when  he  wrote  : — 

Thou  art,  0  God  !  the  life  and  light 

Of  all  this  wondrous  world  we  see ; 
Its  glow  by  day,  its  smile  by  night, 

Are  but  reflections  caught  from  Thee. 
Where'er  wo  turn,  Thy  glories  shine. 
And  all  things  fair  and  bright  are  Thine. 

When  day,  with  farewell  beam  delays, 

Among  the  opening  clouds  of  oven, 
And  wo  can  almost  think  wo  gaze 

Through  golden  vistas  into  1  [caven  ; 
Those  hues  that  make  the  sun's  decline 
So  soft,  so  radiant,  Lord  !  are  Thine. 

When  night,  with  wings  of  starry  gloom, 

O'ershadows  all  the  earth  and  skies. 
Like  some  dark  beauteous  bird  whose  plumo 

Is  sparkling  with  unnumbered  eyes  : — 
That  sacred  gloom,  those  tires  divine. 
So  grand,  so  countless,  Lord  !  are  Thine. 

When  youthful  Spring  around  us  breathes, 

Thy  spirit  warms  her  fragrant  sigh, 
And  every  flower  the  summer  wreathes 

Is  born  beneath  that  kindling  eye. 
Where'er  we  turn,  Thy  glories  shine, 
And  all  things  fair  and  bright  are  Thine. 

— T.  Moore. 

Like  his  creature  the  sun  with  his  life-giving  rays, 
the  Creator  was  continually  ready  to  extend  a  helping 
A  noble  hand  to  his  faithful  worshippers.  The  doctrine 
religion.  ^^g  ^ii  early  and  dim  prototype  of  Christi- 
anity. Aton  was  the  "  loving  father  "  of  all  creation,* 
the  Father  in  heaven,  the  source  of  all  joy  and  life.  No 
image  of  him  was  allowed  to  be  made.  The  symbol  was 
not  worshipped.  Aton  had  no  form  or  parts,  but  was  an 
intangible  essence.     He  was  the  ''Lord  of  Love,"t  the 

•  Weigall,  op.  cit.  p.  121.  f  Id.  op.  cit.  p.  121. 


t 


» 

( 


A  PHILOSOPHER-KING-  67 

beneficent   creator,    who    loved    all    and   each   of    his 
creatures.    Aton   also    was  without    rivals:  Akhnaton 
never  mentions  any  other  god.    He  was  also  the  Lord 
ot  1  eace.    Akhnaton  was  absolutely  opposed  to  war  and 
coercion  in  any  form.     He  offered  sacrifices  of  vegetables, 
frui  s,  and  flowers  only.    He  flung  on  the  rubbish-hean 
all  the  current  paraphernalia  of  ceremonies  and  formulae 
His  psalms  speak  the  genuine  language  of  the  heart,  and 
of  a  heart  deeply  religious  and  spiritually  sensitive     In 
their  ideas  and  language  they  at  times  even  anticipate 
the  psalms  of  that  other  poet-king,  David.     Take  these 
words  of  the  hymn  he  wrote  at  the  age  of  twenty-one  •  * 
"How    manifold    are  all  thy  works!     Thou  didst 
create   the  earth  according  to  thy  desire,  while  thou 
wast  a  one,  men,  all  cattle,  large  and  small,  all  that  are 
U2)on  the  earth  .  .  . 

"  The  world  is  in  thy  hand,  even  as  thou  hast  made 
them  ^;:hen  thou  hast  risen,  they  live:  when  thou 
settest,  they  die.    By  thee  man  liveth  .  .  ." 

And  compare  them  with  Psalm  civ."  24-30-  "0 
Lord,  how  manifold  are  thy  works  !  In  wisdom  hast 
thou  made  them  all :  the  earth  is  full  of  thy  riches  .  .  . 
These  wai  all  upon  thee  .  .  .  Thou  openest  thine  hand, 
hey  are  filled  with  good.  Thou  hidest  thy  face,  they  are 
troubled:  thou  takest  away  their  breath,  they  die,  and 
i^turn  to  their  dust.  Thou  sendest  forth  thy  spirit 
they  are  created :  and  thou  renewest  the  face  of  the 
earth. 

The  great  Temple  of  Aton  was  characteristic  of  the 
new  religion  It  was.  contrary  to  the  current  (and  even 
the  modern)  custom,  full  of  light.  No  darkness  or 
mystery  was  tolerated.  Akhnaton  abolished  human 
sacrifice  in  his  dominions.  He  believed  that  Aton. 
God,  was  the  father  of  all  mankind,  this  being  the  first 

»  Weigall,  op.  cit.  p.  155. 


1 


GS 


THE  ANCIENT  WOBLD 


conception  of  a  deity  neither  tribal  nor  national.  **  By  no 
religion  in  the  world  is  Christianity  so  closely  approached 
as  by  the  faith  of  Akhnaton."  *  The  whole  movement 
inaugurated  by  this  king  has  been  described  as  **  one  of 
the  most  curious  and  interesting  episodes  in  the  history 
of  the  world."  t 

The  influence  of  the  new  faith  w^as  seen  in  the  new 
art.  Allowing  for  exaggerations  due  to  a  desire  to  mark 
The  new  ^  protest  against  meaningless  convention,  the 
^^^-  art    is    simple   and   unaffected.      The   poses 

and  groupings  of  figures  are  natural  to  a  remark- 
able degree.  The  cry  was,  "  drop  convention  and  look 
to  nature."  The  king  himself  ordered  his  life  in 
accordance  with  his  principles.  If  we  may  trust  the 
monuments,  he  was  a  most  affectionate  father  and 
husband,  and  was  entirely  free,  in  public  as  in  private 
life,  from  vanity  and  ostentation.  lie  detested  the 
formalities  of  traditional  etiquette,  and  his  easy  manners 
and  affability  made  him  very  popular  with  the  people. 

But  he  was,  if  one  may  say  so,  too  good  for  a  throne. 
The  principles  which  sat  well  on  a  philosopher  and 
Akhnaton  I'^ligious  reformer  were  not  suitable  for  the 
in  advance  administration  of  a  wide  empire  and  the 
of  his  age.  ^gf^nce  of  distant  and  valuable  frontiers. 
Empires  may  be  built  up  on  and  inspired  by  ideals, 
but  they  are  not  safely  entrusted  to  the  keeping  of 
idealists.  In  the  last  two  years  of  the  prophet-king's 
reign,  the  Ilittites,  of  whom  more  anon,  helped  by  the 
simultaneous  raids  of  Ilabiri  (perhaps  Hebrews  ?)  began 
to  give  trouble.  Akhnaton  objected  to  war  on  principle. 
The  result  was  that  he  lost  Syria  bej^ond  hope  of 
recovery.  It  is  a  pathetic  scene  preserved  for  us  most 
vividly    in  the   royal    archives    discovered    at    Tel-el- 

♦  Wcigall,  op.  cit.  p.  147. 

t  Budge,  *'  History  of  Kgjpt,"  quoted  by  Weigall,  p.  189. 


A  PHILOSOPHER-KING  69 

Amarna.*  Traitors  among  his  own  vassals  fool  him, 
easily  concealing  their  double  dealing  from  his  guileless 
and  unsuspecting  vision.  His  governors  and  generals 
in  the  cities  of  Syria  and  Palestine,  Megiddo,  Gezer, 
Askalon,  and  Jerusalem,  in  quick  succession  address 
despairing  and  pathetic  appeals  to  their  sovereign,  or 
even  journey  to  Akhetaton  (Tel-el-Amarna)  to  lay  bare 
the  gravity  of  the  peril  threatening  his  empire. 

All  in  vain.  The  entreaties  fell  on  deaf  ears.  The 
despatches  were  all  pigeon-holed— answered  or  un- 
answered—and forgotten.  The  distant  outposts,  loyal 
but  deserted,  fell  one  after  another  into  the  enemy's 
hands.  Nothing  awoke  the  king  from  his  apathy.  At 
last  his  health,  which  had  never  been  anything  but  bad, 
broke  down,  and  the  end  followed  quickly.  Thus,  amid 
the  news  of  wars  and  frequent  disasters,  the  saintly 
dreamer  and  lover  of  peace,  the  author  of  one  of  the 
most  extraordinary  religious  experiments  in  the  history 
of  the  world,  passed  away  worn  out  at  the  a^e  of 
twenty-eight !  ^ 

And  his  religion,  too  good  and  lofty  for  his  age,  died 
with  him.     He  was  succeeded  by  one  and  then  another 
son-in-law,   who,  though  they  had  married 
his  daughters,  had  not  imbibed  his  fervour  or    the  new 
his  genius.      Horemheb,  commander-in-chief  "movement, 
of    the    army,    which,   we    may    easily  imagine,    was 
chahng  and  straining  impatiently  fco  be  let  loose  at  the 
audacious  assailants  of  the  Empire,  put  himself  at  the 
head  of  the  party  of  reaction.     Under  pressure  from 
him  Iving  Tutankhaton,  the  second  son-in-law,  changed 
his  name  to  Tutankhamen,  and  returned  with  the  court 

*  Sec  British  Museum,  Babylonian  and  Assyrian  Room,  table-case  F 

tablets'' ThT'r  "^"1  interesting  selection  from  the  320  Tel-el-Amarna 

will  ;.  J  '^  *^'  *^^^'^^  ^^^^^^  ^^^^  *^^  P^^fc  ot  Asia  from 

which  they  were  despatched.  «  «.   num 


70 


THE   ANCIENT   WOELD 


I 


to  Thebes.  Clearly  Aton  ^Yas  dead,  and  Anion  and 
Thebes  were  once  more  supreme.  Akhnaton's  body 
was  carried  back  to  the  city  he  had  abandoned  and  laid 
in  the  tomb  of  his  mother,  Queen  Tiy  (where  it  was 
found  in  1907).  On  Tutankliamon's  death  soon  after, 
Horemheb  ascended  the  throne. 

Of  course,  there  was  another  side  to  the  picture : 
E jypt  was  not  all  religious  turmoil  or  political  disaster. 
Here   again,   as   in   a   former  case,   we  are 
tafe^^of  the    greatly  assisted  in  forming  a  correct  idea  of 
Eighteenth   the  age  under  review  by  popular  stories  of 
Dynasty.       ^^^^  time.*     It   must  not   be   supposed  that 
under   Thothmes  the  Great  everybody  was  intent  on 
empire-building    and    extension  of  frontiers,   or   that 
under     Akhnaton    religious    questions    engrossed    the 
minds  of  all  his  subjects.     Look  at  the  varied  assort- 
ment of  news  which  the  majority  of  men  and  women 
will  hunt  up  and  devour  in  their  daily  paper,  before 
they  cast   a  glance,   if  they  ever    do   so    at    all,   on 
parliamentary,  military,  or  religious  news.     And  human 
nature  does  not  change  so  very  much  in  the  course  of 
ages.     The   things  usually   recorded  in  history  books 
affect   kings   and   courtiers,    conquerors     and    priests, 
ambitious   men  w^ho  climb,  and  proud  men  who  fall. 
But  the  great  bulk  of  the  nation,  who  fall  into  none  of 
these  categories,  the  ordinary  life  of  field  and  market- 
place,   street    and    fireside,    pursues    its    even    tenor 
year   in,  year   out.     And,  fortunately,  songs,  ballads, 
and    tales   preserve   something   of    the    commonplace 
life  which  escapes  the  eye,  or   at   any  rate  the  pen, 
of    war-correspondents,    court    poets    and    fashionable 
chroniclers. 

The  **  Adventures  of  Sanehat "  gave  us  a  pleasing 

♦  See    Prof.  Flinders     Petrie's    "  Egyptian    Tales,"     2nd    series. 
(Methuen  &  Co.,  1895.) 


A  PHILOSOPHER-KING 


71 


and  vivid  picture  of  ordinary  life  in  Egypt  and  Palestine 
in  the  Twelfth  Dynasty,  just  before  the  age  of  ,,  ^j^^ 
Abraham,  and  the  Eighteenth  is  similarly  Taking  of 
illuminated  for  us  by  tales  like  *'The  Doomed  •^®PP*" 
Prince,"  **The  Taking  of  Joppa,"  and  *' The  Two 
Brothers."  The  first  is  a  simple  little  story  of  youth 
and  love  and  death,  but  is  unfortunately  incomplete. 
The  second  describes  an  episode  in  the  conquests  of 
Thothmes  the  Great,  whose  great  wonder-working  cane 
is  introduced  into  the  story.  By  means  of  it  the  general 
Tahuti  overpowers  the  rebel  leader.  But  the  real  point 
of  the  story  is  the  trick  by  which  Joppa  was  taken,  after 
a  long  siege,  by  the  crafty  introduction  into  the  city  of 
two  hundred  sacks,  supposed  to  contain  a  friendly  gift 
of  provisions,  but  really  concealing  men,  weapons,  and 
chains.  The  reader  is  reminded  of  the  wooden  horse 
and  its  deadly  load  at  Troy,  or  of  Ali  Baba  and  the  jars. 
The  story  is  very  possibly  based  upon  fact.  At  any  rate 
the  Louvre  contains  a  magnificent  gold  dish  which  was 
presented  by  Thothmes  III,  to  an  officer  of  his  called 
Tahuti.     Was  it  a  reward  for  this  very  exploit  ? 

The  last  of  the  three  tales  is  by  far  the  longest  and 
most  interesting.  A  description,  however  detailed,  could 
not  give  a  fair  notion  of  this  masterpiece.  To  be  «<  The  Two 
appreciated  it  must  be  read.  True,  the  second  Brothers." 
part  of  the  tale,  which  is  a  later  addition,  is  too  full  of 
improbabilities  and  marvels  for  modern  taste ;  but  the 
early  pages,  with  their  description  of  country  life  and 
the  wonderfully  affectionate  devotion  of  the  younger 
brother  Bata  to  his  elder  Anpu,  whom  he  serves  like  a 
slave,  possess  an  unsurpassable  charm.  The  elder 
brother's  wife  had  nothing  to  learn  from  Potiphar's,  and 
Bata  is  doomed  to  the  part  of  Joseph,  but  without  the 
great  Hebrew's  subsequent  exaltation.  The  tragedy 
develops  rapidly.      Bata  narrowly  escapes  murder  at 


72 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


his  brother's  hands,  fiees  the  country  after  convincing 
his  pursuer  of  the  true  facts,  and  Anpu  goes  home  and 
makes  away  with  the  wife  who  had  deceived  him.  The 
rest  of  the  story  is  taken  up  with  the  marvellous 
adventures  and  metamorphoses  of  Bata,  highly 
interesting  to  the  student  of  mythology  and  folk-lore. 
But  the  first  portion,  just  briefly  described,  is  full  of 
little  touches  which  bring  before  the  reader's  eyes  as 
scarcely  anything  else  could  have  done,  the  life  of  the 
people  of  Egypt  in  the  days  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty, 
in  other  words,  shortly  before  the  time  of  Moses. 


CHAPTER  V 


FORGOTTKN    EMPIRES — CRETE   AND    THE    HITTITES 

The  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  which  politically  suffered  so 
remarkable  an  eclipse  under  the  rule  of  its  philosopher- 
king,    the    **  heretic "    Akhnaton,    had    yet  "Spacious 
enjoyed  a  long  period  of  extraordinary  splen-  ^^^l'  ^ 
dour.      Indeed  it  might  be  said  that  under  teenth 
Thothmes  III.  the  Great,  and  Amenhotep  III.  Dynasty, 
the   Magnificent,  the   sun   of   Egypt   had   reached   its 
zenith.     The  victorious   expeditions  of  Thothmes  III. 
had  brought  Egypt,  either  by  actual  conquest  or  through 
apprehension  of  it,  or  by  friendly  commerce  encouraged 
by  Egypt's  reputation   for   power  and   opulence,   into 
contact  with  nations  far  removed  from  the  Nile   and 
from  one  another. 

There  is  abundant  evidence  of  extensive  commercial 
intercourse  between  Egypt  and  Crete  at  this  period ; 
Cretan    objects    are    found    in   Egypt,   and  crete: 
Egyptian  scarabs  and  other  objects  in  Crete,  three  great 
But   the   connexion   had  begun  very  much  ^ Aegean 
earlier,    and    Crete    and    the    neighbouring  civiiiza- 
islands  and  coasts  of  the  Aegean  had  already 
had  a  long  history,  and  were  well  advanced  on  the 
path   of  civilization.     In  the  arts   Of  war   and  peace 
they  had  attained  a  high  degree  of  development.     This 
civilization,   which    modern   historians    agree   to    call 
**  Aegean,"  extended   over   a  period  of  at  least   three 

thousand  years,  from  before  4000  b.c.  to  about  1000  B.C., 

73 


0t 


in 


74 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


FORGOTTEN   EMPIRES 


75 


I 


divided  by  experts  into  nine  stages,  viz.  :  the  Neolithic 
Age,  followed  by  eight  periods  of  the  Bronze  Age. 
These  nine  periods  they  have  named,  after  the  mythical 
King  of  Crete,  Minoan  I.,  1,  2,  3;  Minoan  II.,  1,  2,  3  ; 
and  Minoan  III.,  1,  2,  3.  But  disregarding  the  sub- 
divisions, it  may  sulHcc  for  ordinary  purposes  to  divide 
the  total  duration  of  about  tliree  thousand  years  into 
three  great  periods :  Early  Minoan,  Middle  Minoan,  and 
Late  Minoan. 

There  is  no  written  history  of  the  *'Aegeans."  It 
can  only  be  reconstructed,  by  comparison  and  inference, 
Remains  ^^'^"^  allusions  and  remains.  The  remains 
and  other  are  found  widely  scattered,  in  Greece,  the 
Ionian  Islands,  the  Aegean  archipelago,  Crete, 
Cyprus,  Sicily,  Italy,  Sardinia,  Spain,  Egypt,  and  the 
western  coast  of  x\sia  Elinor,  and  are  specially  important 
at  Cnossus  in  Crete,  Hissarlik  (Troy)  in  Asia  Minor, 
and  Mycenae  and  Tiryns  on  the  mainland  of  Greece. 
They  consist  of  palaces,  fortresses,  tombs,  decorations, 
frescoes,  jars,  and  other  vessels,  thrones,  tables,  coffins, 
sculptures,  paintings,  weapons  of  stone,  clay,  bronze 
and  iron,  brooches,  razors,  tweezers,  clay  tablets  and 
disks,  gems,  bridges  and  drains.  So  far  internal  evi- 
dence. The  external  consists  of  allusions  in  Egyptian, 
Semitic  and  Babylonian  records,  frescoes  and  sculptures, 
and  of  legends  to  be  found  in  Homer,  Herodotus,  Strabo 
and  Diodorus  Siculus. 

From  a  combination  of  every  available  source  of 
information  it  may  be  gathered  tliat  the  "  Aegeans  "  were 
The  a  dark,  long-headed  race,  coming  originally 

♦'Aegeans" :  perhaps  from  north-eastern  Africa,  and  speak- 
ment"re-  i^^g  ^  language  which,  while  not  Hellenic, 
ligion,  etc.  -yvas  Indo-European.  They  w^ere  ruled  by 
kings  who  lived  in  large  fortified  palaces,  and  combined 
pohtical  with  religious  power,  probably  acting  as  high 


priests.  The  religion  was,  of  course,  primitive,  partly  a 
nature -cult  and  partly  ancestor- worship.  Prayers  and 
sacrifices  were  offered  to  rocks,  pillars,  trees,  axes,  and 
all  kinds  of  plants  and  animals.  The  houses  of  the 
well-to-do  were  comfortable  and  even  luxurious,  with  a 
wonderfully  efficient  water-supply  and  drainage  system. 
The  dead  were  never  burnt  but  buried,  at  first  in  cists 
of  upright  stones  covered  with  earth,  later  in  solidly 
built  bee-hive  tombs,  sometimes,  as  in  the  so-called 
*' Treasury  of  Atreus"  at  Mycenae,  of  considerable  size 
and  perfect  workmanship.  ''Aegean"  art  reached  a 
high  degree  of  excellence  as  early  as  2500  b.c,  especially 
in  potter's  work ;  but  its  golden  age  was  between  1500 
and  1^00  B.C.,  during  the  rule  of  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty 
in  Egypt,  as  is  proved  by  the  capitals  and  columns  of 
the  "Treasury  of  Atreus"  and  beautiful  goldsmith's 
work  from  Vaphio  and  Mycenae.  Commerce  was  active 
and  had  a  wide  range.  Cretan  pottery  was  exported  to 
the  Greek  mainland  and  to  Egypt,  with  which  country, 
especially  after  IGOOb.c,  there  was  continued  close 
intercourse.  Sjme  handmade  va3es,  considered  by 
Professor  Petrie  to  be  Cretan,  were  found  by  him  at 
Abydos  in  Egypt,  dating  before  4000  B.C.,  while  some 
fragmentary  remains  at  Cnossus  in  Crete  correspond 
with  the  work  of  the  Fourth  Dynasty,  which  built  the 
great  pyramids.  Cretan  pottery  of  the  Middle  Minoan 
age  has  been  found  in  the  Fayoum,  amongst  Egyptian 
architecture  of  the  Twelfth  Dynasty  (about  2500  b.c), 
while  a  diorite  statuette  of  the  Thirteenth  Dynasty  was 
found  in  the  central  court  of  the  palace  of  Cnossus  of 
the  Middle  Minoan  period.  Cnossus  also  yielded  a 
cartouche  of  the  Hyksos  king  Khyan  (about  1900  b.c), 
one  of  the  few  relics  of  those  little-known  "Dark 
Ages."  The  Eighteenth  Dynasty  (1700-1320  b.c.)  corre- 
B2)onds  to  the  beginning  of  the  Late  Minoan  epoch. 


76 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


FORGOTTEN  EMPIRES 


77 


Scarabs  of  its  kings  occur  at  Mycenae,  lalysus  and 
Vaphio.  In  a  tomb  at  Thebes,  there  is  a  representation 
of  **  Keftiu  "  tributaries  carrying  *'  Aegean  "  vases,  and 
bearing  a  strong  resemblance  to  Cretan  frescoes.  More- 
over, Minoan  vases  are  found  in  tombs  of  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty,  especially  in  Akhnaton's  new  capital,  Akhetaton 
(Tel-el-Amarna)  and  Nilotic  scenes  are  depicted  on  a 
dagger  from  Mycenae,  frescoes  at  Cnossus  and  a  relief  at 
Phaestus.  Minoan  vases  also  have  been  recovered  at 
Gezer,  the  Philistine  city,  and  it  is  interesting  to  note  that 
in  the  Bible  one  name  of  the  Philistines  is  Cherethim, 
which  probably  means  Cretans.  It  is  evident  beyond 
question  that  there  was  extensive  trailicking  between 
Egypt,  Syria,  Crete  and  Greece  from  the  very  remotest 
times. 

Of  Minos,  the  famous  but,  probably,  legendary  King 
of  Crete,  it  is  impossible  to  say  anything  with  certainty. 
Homer,  our  oldest  literary  authority,  says 
that  he  was  a  son  of  Zeus  (who,  by  the 
way,  is  given  a  niche,  openly  or  implicitly,  in  the  pedi- 
grees of  most  kings),  reigned  three  generations  before 
the  Trojan  War,  was  the  brother  of  the  golden-haired 
Rhadamanthus,  and  became  the  judge  of  the  departed 
in  Hades.  Herodotus  tells  us  that  he  was  one  of  the 
first,  if  not  the  first,  to  grasp  the  importance  of  sea- 
power  and  found  a  naval  empire.  His  name  is  most 
widely  famous,  perhaps,  for  the  story  of  the  Minotaur, 
the  bull-headed  monster,  which  he  shut  up  in  the 
Labyrinth  and  fed  on  human  llesh.  For  historical 
purposes  it  is  safer  to  be  content  with  a  less  uncertain, 
if  more  prosaic,  story.  Yet  even  legends  have  their 
uses.  Scratch  a  legend  and  you  find,  very  often,  a 
truth.  Wliether  Minos  be  the  name  of  a  historical 
person,  or  a  djmastic  title,  or  mere  legend,  the  ruler  of 
Cnossus  at  this  epoch  must  have  held  wide  sway  and 


King  Minos. 


possessed  fleets  which  could  make  his  will  respected 
in  distant  dependencies.  A  self-respecting  Greek  state 
does  not  send  its  young  men  and  maidens  to  a  distant 
island  as  food  for  monsters  in  a  fit  of  absent-minded- 
ness, or  for  a  joke.  It  does  it  because  it  has  to,  under 
threat  of  consequences  if  it  refuses.  It  is  clear  that 
Crete  at  one  time  exercised  complete  dominion  over 
Athens,  and  over  many  another  city  on  the  Aegean 
coasts.  But  it  is  equally  to  be  inferred  from  the  story 
of  Theseus,  the  Athenian  prince,  with  the  help  of 
Ariadne,  the  daughter  of  Minos,  slaying  the  monster 
and  abolishing  the  ghastly  tribute,  that  at  some  time 
Athens,  with  the  help  of  treachery  within  the  walls, 
defeated  her  suzerain  and  regained  her  independence. 

The  history  of  the  *' Aegean"  race  and  empire 
might  perhaps  be  summarized  very  briefly  somewhat 
as  follows  :  Somewhere  about  2500  b.c.  it  An  Aegean 
established  a  strong  monarchial  state  with  its  Empire, 
centre  at  Cnossus,  which  reached  its  acme  about 
2000  B.C.  Then  followed  a  period  of  decline,  during 
which  rival  towns  sprang  up  at  Mycenae,  Tiryns  and 
Troy.  About  IGOO  b.c.  a  great  change  occurred.  A 
uniform  religion,  art,  and  system  of  wTiting  were 
established  over  the  whole  Aegean  area.  This  gave  a 
great  impetus  to  commerce,  and  once  more  Crete  be- 
came progressive,  increased  in  wealth  and  recovered  her 
power.  But  it  was  a  swan-song.  In  not  more  than  two 
centuries,  about  1400  b.c,  the  great  stone  palace  of 
Cnossus  was  sacked  and  burnt,  probably  by  the  fore- 
runners of  the  Hellenes. 

The  language  of  the  *^Aegeans,"  which  so  far  has 
defied  all  attempts  to  decipher  it,  was  apparently  some- 
what akin  to  that  of  the  Hittites.      Unfor-    The 
tunately  this,  too,  is  still  a  sealed  book,  or,    Hittites. 
rather,   a  riddle    of   which    the    key    has    been  lost. 


I 


ill 


78 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


Here,  again,  we  are  thrown  back  upon  allusions  in  the 
records  of  neighbouring  nations,  deductions  from  sur- 
viving monuments,  and,  in  the  last  resort,  as  always, 
conjecture.  A  great  deal  of  doubt  still  shrouds  the 
history  of  this  mysterious  nation ;  but  a  beginning  has 
been  made,  and  what  has  been  discovered  is  highly 
interesting.  The  remains,  in  the  shape  of  sculptures 
and  inscriptions,  are  found  all  over  Asia  Minor,  except 
along  the  coasts,  and  in  northern  Syria,  down  to 
Hamah.  The  largest  find  was  made  at  Boghaz  Keui, 
the  ancient  Pteria,  in  north  Cappadocia;  but  other 
places  have  also  rewarded  the  explorer,  such  as 
"Niobe"  (Suratlu  Tash)  in  the  west,  Kara-dagh  in 
Phrygia,  Karaburna,  in  south  Cappadocia,  Marash, 
Aleppo,  Jerablus  (Carchemish  '?)  and  Samsat  (Samosata) 
in  Commagene.  Outside  Asia  Minor,  dealings  have 
been  found  at  Nineveh,  and  sculptures  at  l^abylon.  The 
Hittite  fortifications  have  elaborate  double  gates,  with 
flanking  towers,  constituting  an  ingenious  trap  for  an 
assailant  between  the  outer  and  inner  gates.  We  may 
remember  the  flanking  ramparts  of  the  entrance  to  the 
Hyksos  encampment  at  Avaris :  one  theory  is  that  the 
Hyksos  were  related  to  the  Hittites. 

Hittite  sculpture  consists  mostly  of  rock-hewn  reliefs. 
The  only  fairly  complete  statue,  so  far  known,  is  the 
Appearance  so-called  **  Niobe  "  at  Suratlu  Tash  ;  and  this 
of  the  is  not  completely  disengaged  from  the  rock 

ittites.  behind.  The  monuments  agree  in  giving  the 
men  a  squat  and  heavy  build,  but,  of  course,  allowance 
must  be  made  for  bad  drawing.  The  bones  and  muscles 
are  prominent,  as  in  Assyrian  art.  The  head  is  short 
with  receding  forehead  and  long  nose.  Sometimes  the 
nose  has  a  long  curving  tip,  not  unlike  the  Kheta 
warriors  in  Egyptian  paintings.  The  lips  are  full,  the 
chin  short  and  sometimes  shaven,  sometimes  bearded. 


FOEGOTTEN  EMPIEES 


79 


the  hair  is  long  and  sometimes  worn  in  a  curling  pigtail. 
Pointed  caps  with  upturned  brims,  and  shoes  with  toes 
turned  up  are  the  prevailing  fashion. 

It  is  most  unfortunate  that  we  cannot  improve  our 
knowledge  of  Hittite  life  and  customs  by  a  persual  of 
literature,  official  and  popular,  as  is  the  case 
with  Egypt.  But,  even  though  we  cannot  ^^®  ^^^'^P*- 
interpret  it,  it  is  amusing  and  interesting  to  study 
their  writing,  and  we  can  learn  something  from 
examining  and  comparing  their  sculptures.  The  script 
resembles  nothing  more  than  rows  of  little  pictures  such 
as  a  cliild  of  four  or  five  might  draw :  there  are  heads, 
eyes,  hands,  swords,  animals,  and  all  manner  of  other 
objects,  animate  and  inanimate,  difficult  to  recognize. 
Unfortunately,  in  this  case  the  child-artist  is  not  there 
to  explain,  and  so  we  are  left  wondering.  Two  things 
at  least  about  the  script  deserve  notice.  The  same 
symbols  appear  to  recur  facing  now  one  way  now  the 
other,  which  makes  it  appear  probable  that  the  writing 
was  read,  like  some  ancient  Greek  writing,  zig-zag 
fashion,  from  right  to  left  and  left  to  right  in  alternate 
lines.  And  secondly,  in  many  cases  the  symbols  are 
sculptured  in  relief,  which  must  have  made  the  work 
far  more  difficult.  Clearly  theirs  was  no  age  of  hurry 
and  scurry. 

The  sculptures  are  certainly  not  beautiful,  but  they 
are  extremely  curious  and  sometimes  unintentionally 
comic.  The  face  is  always  shown  in  profile,  xhe  sculp- 
but  the  eye  most  commonly  full-face,  and  ^^^es. 
disproportionately  large  at  that.  There  is  no  sense 
of  perspective  or  proportion.  The  attitudes  are  stiff 
and  ungainly.  The  conception  is  childish  and  the 
execution  is  usually  very  poor,  with  one  or  two  brilliant 
exceptions.  In  a  certain  relief,  two  men,  one  bearded, 
the  other  clean-shaven,  are  having  a  meal — a  frequent 


k     h 


80 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


FORGOTTEN  EMPIRES 


81 


subject  of  nittitc  sculpture.  The  figures  are  in  profile. 
All  four  feet  arc  shown  complete,  in  single  file,  one 
figure  is  (>ating  with  his  left  hand,  and  tlie  table,  with 
only  two  legs,  is  up  in  the  air  on  a  level  with  the  men's 
eyes  and  resting  on  air.  In  another,  a  tomb-sculpturo 
from  northern  Syria,  two  women  are  apparently  sitting 
at  afternoon  tea.  Tlie  feet  are  arrangiMl  as  in  the  other 
relief,  but  on  foot-stools,  and  the  two-legged  table,  laid 
with  just  three  saucers  and  a  single  egg-cup,  is  balanced 
on  the  good  ladies'  toes.  They  appear  to  be  wearing 
over  their  dresses  long  veils  hanging  from  headgear 
resembling  very  closely  modern  '*  top-hats."  The 
chairs  have  very  low  backs,  about  six  inches  high,  and 
look  uncomfortable.  Another  relief,  found  at  ]5abylon, 
shows  the  Jlittite  God  of  Storms.  His  tall  conical  hat 
is  surmounted  with  a  ball  almost  as  large  as  his  head, 
and  ha>^  a  wide  upturned  brim.  His  tunic,  which 
reaches  to  a  little  above  the  knee,  ends  in  a  deep  fringe, 
and  is  drawn  in  at  the  waist  with  a  wide  sash  support- 
ing a  heavy  sword.  He  wears  top-boots  reaching  nearly 
to  the  knees  and  turned  up  at  the  toes.  His  nose  is 
long,  and  so  are  liis  hair  and  his  beard  which  is  very 
curly,  or  artificially  curled.  In  his  left  hand  he 
brandishes  three  lightnings  and  in  his  right  a  hannner. 
As  regards  architecture,  very  little  is  known.  Rut 
towns   have  been  revealed   on  one  or  two  sites.     The 

Architecture  ^^^^^^  ^^^  several  yards  thick,  and  the  gates 
fianked  by  massive  towers ;  there  are  signs 
of  palaces  and  forts.  The  walls  are  built  of  rough 
stone  below  and  bricks  above.  Rut  the  remains  are 
little  more  than  ground-plans  in  relief,  about  a  yard 
high. 

At  first  sight,  perhaps,  the  impossibility  of  decipher- 
ing the  Hittite  script  or  even  of  detecting  any  atlinity 
between   it    and  other   languages    might    seem   to    be 


evidence  of  racial  and  political  isolation.  Rut  a 
moment's  thought  will  correct  the  imiiression.  The 
complete  dissimilarity  between  Gaelic  or  Erse  j^. 
and  English  does  not  prove  the  existence  of  a  with 
gulf  between  Highlanders  or  Irish  and  us.  ^«i&^^o^«- 
The  language  is  a  survival,  a  particularly  hard  rock  not 
yet  worn  away  by  the  tide  of  invasion.  So  it  may  have 
been  with  the  Hittite  language.  Some  day  the  script 
will  be  deciphered,  as  will  the  Cypriote  and  the  Cretan, 
and  then  we  shall  wonder  that  we  did  not  detect  their 
aillinities  sooner.  There  are  distinct  points  of  re- 
semblance between  the  Hittite  sculptures  and  the 
Assyrian;  while  Hebrew,  Assyrian,  and  Egyptian 
records  show  clearly  what  extensive  dealings  the 
Ilittites  had  with  all  their  neighbours.  After  all,  the 
world  has  always  been  very  small. 

A  fair  amount  of  documentary  evidence  occurs  in  the 
Rible.*  Abraham  purchased  the  cave  of  Machpelah,  as 
a  family  vault,  from  Ephron  the  Hittite,  in  References 
the  environs  of  Hebron  in  southern  Palestine,  in  thT^^* 
Esau,  to  his  parents'  grief,  married  two  Hittite  ^'^^^• 
wives.  Many  years  after  the  Israelite  spies  sent  out  by 
Moses  reported  that  Ilittites  inhabited  the  southern 
uplands.  In  later  times  still  there  are  many  allusions 
to  them.  At  the  time  of  Joshua's  conquest  of  Canaan, 
they  inhabited  the  country  between  Lebanon  and  the 
Euphrates,  and  even  after  the  conquest  were  still  left 
in  considerable  numbers  mingling  and  intermarrying 
with  the  Hebrews.  Uriah,  the  husband  of  Rath-sheba, 
was  a  Hittite.  Solomon  found  them  still  in  the  land, 
and  made  serfs  of  them  :  while  both  in  his  time  and 
much  later,  in  the  days  of  Elisha  (about  800  b.c),  there 

*  See  Gen.  xxiii.  3 ;  Num.  xiii.  29 ;  Josh.  i.  4 ;  Ezek.  xvi.  3 ; 
Judges  iii.  5,  G ;  Gon.  xxvi.  34 ;  1  Kings  ix.  20,  21 ;  2  Chron.  viii.  7,  8  ; 
1  Kings  X.  18  ;  2  Kings  vii.  C. 

G 


8-2 


THE  ANCIENT  WOULD 


FOEGOTTEN  EMPIEES 


83 


were  powerful  Ilittite  kings  in  the  north,  who  purchased 
horses  and  war-chariots  from  Egypt,  and  whose  armies 
still  inspired  terror.     But  we  are  anticipating  events. 

By  Egyptian  records  they  are  first  mentioned  in  the 
conquests  of  the  great  ThothmcS  III.,  who  calls  them 
Egyptian  the  Kheta.  Amenhotep  III.,  *Hhe  Magnifi- 
records.  cent,"  father  of  Akhnaton,  married  a  Mitani 
princess,  who  prohably  was  a  Ilittite.  Seti  I.,  the 
second  king  of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty  (about  1300 
B.c).,  attacked  them,  and  so  did  his  famous  son  Rameses 
II.,  who  made  an  important  treaty  with  them  as  equals. 
Tlie  treaty  is  still  extant.  After  flattering  and  exag- 
gerated protestations  of  mutual  affection,  the  two 
monarchs  conclude  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance, 
and  an  extradition  treaty  in  very  explicit  language.  The 
document  ends  with  a  solemn  curse  on  the  breakers  of 
the  peace,  and  blessing  on  all  who  observe  it. 

Assyrian  records   do   not    touch    the    Ilittites    till 
much  later,  in  the  reign  of   Tiglath-Pileser  I.  (about 

Assyrian  ^^^  ^'^■^'  ^^^^  ^^'^  *^^^'^  mentioned 
records.  as  settled  at  Carchemish.  Later  still,  in 
the  ninth  century  b.c,  Assur-nazir-pal  mentions  them 
more  than  once.  Shalmaneser  II.  {825  b.c.)  raided 
them  repeatedly,  and  finally  Sargon  III.  in  717  b.c, 
captured  Carchemish  and  its  king  Pisiris,  and  dealt  the 
Ilittite  power  a  severe  blow. 

From  all  this  it  would  appear  that  the  Ilittites  were 
once  scattered  widely  over  Asia  Minor  and  Syria 
at  a  very  early  date,  and  included  many 
o?HUtUe  tribes,  c//.,  the  Lakki  (Lycians)  who  were 
liistory.  pi^-ates,  and  the  Khilakka  (Cilicians).  They 
invaded  Accad  in  the  reign  of  Samsuditana,  about  1800 
B.c  But  they  first  formed  a  really  strong  state  in 
Cappadocia  in  the  sixteenth  century  b.c  under  Subbilu- 
liuma  (what  manner   of  language  must  Ilittite  have 


been !),  who  was  their  first  great  king,  although  he 
had  at  least  one  predecessor  on  the  throne,  by  name 
Hattusil.  Feeling  their  strength,  they  advanced  south 
and  conquered  north  Syria  and  Mesopotamia,  came 
into  collision  with  Egypt  which  was  being  ruled  by 
Akhnaton  (see  Chapter  IV.),  and,  under  Hattusil  II., 
fought  a  great  battle  at  Kadesli  on  equal  terms  against 
the  great  Eameses  II.  They  treated  as  equals  with 
both  Egypt  and  Babylon,  the  two  greatest  powers  of  the 
time.  King  Hattusil  corresponded  with  King  Katash- 
manturgu  of  Babylon  as  a  brother-sovereign,  and 
became  his  friend  and  ally.  Two  centuries  later 
Carchemish,  on  the  Euphrates,  became  the  chief  Hittite 
city,  and  north  Syria  was  called  the  "  land  of  the 
Hittites."  Their  settlement  at  Carchemish,  on  the 
great  highway  of  a  commercial  nation,  made  them  turn 
their  thoughts  to  trade  and  wealth  and  ease,  and 
undermined  their  old  military  energy.  Also  it  brought 
them  unpleasantly  near  to  Assyria,  that  armed  camp, 
which  resented  their  proximity,  and  engaged  in  a  long 
struggle  (eighth  century  b.c)  with  them  which  hastened 
their  downfall.  The  final  blow,  two  centuries  later,  was 
administered  by  Cyrus  the  Great,  first  King  of  Persia 
(about  540  b.c). 


9 

I 


nR 


CHAPTER  VI 

TUB   ANCIENT   EAST  *.   FAR   AND   NEAR 

The  Eighteenth  Dynasty,  with  an  Ahmes,  a  Thothmes, 
and  an  Akhnaton,  had  expelled  the  alien,  added  wide 
Unity  of        provinces  to  the  empire,  and  then  dreamed 
the  world,      iixem   away    again.     Crete   had    called  into 
existence    the    earliest    naval    power    of  which    there 
is  a  record,  and  estahlished  a  well-organized  control 
over   the   Aegean,    with   its  islands  and    surrounding 
mainlands.      The    mysterious    Hittites,    starting    from 
the   highlands  of  Cappadocia,  had   extended   and  con- 
solidated a  powerful  empire  over  the  greater  part   of 
Asia  Minor  and  Syria,  from  Phrygia  to  the  Euphrates. 
And  meanwhile  what  was  the  rest  of  the  world  doing  ? 
For  the  world  is  not  unlike  a  wheel.     The  parts  are 
distinct  and  hear  separate  names.     There  are  the  spokes 
and  the  felloe  and  the  hub.     And  the  hub  may  think 
itself  immeasurably  superior  to  the  rest,  and  some  parts 
may  pride  themselves  on  their  greater  proximity  to  the 
hub  or  centre  of  things.     But  the  whole  wheel  moves 
round  together,  and  no   part  can  stir  without  all  the 
rest.     There  is,   even  in  these  ''enlightened"  days,  a 
strong  temptation  in  every  country  to  think  itself  the 
centre  of  the  universe,  and  to   imagine  that  it  alone 
experiences  real  soul-stirring  **  crises,"  and  changes  and 
counter-changes  which  make  history.     No  doubt,  three 
or  four  thousand  years  ago  it  was  not  far   otherwise. 

84 


THE  ANCIENT  EAST:  FAE  AND  NEAR  85 

Egypt,  no  doubt,  had  its  full  share  of  arrogance  and 
self-absorption.  But  the  world  was  never  built  in 
water-tight  compartments,  and,  no  matter  how  early 
the  period,  there  was  never  a  time  when  great  neigh- 
bour-nations had  not  some  knowledge  of  and  some 
dealings  with  one  another. 

King  Burnaburiash  of  Babylon,  doubtless  for  prac- 
tical no  less  than  sentimental  reasons,  for  the  Baby- 
lonians as  a  nation  had  a  keen  eye  for  business,  Egypt  and 
asked  Akhnaton,  the  ''  heretic  "  Pharaoh,  for  Babylon, 
the  hand  of  one  of  his  daughters  for  his  son.  And  the 
request  was  granted,  testifying  to  friendly  relations 
between  the  two  dynasties. 

Since  the  days  when  Hammurabi  promulgated  his 
great  code  of  laws,  and  Abraham  left  Ur  and  travelled 
westwards  in  pursuit  of  his  ideal,  a  consider-      ,_^„^  . . 

_  J        ,,       Retrospect: 

able  amount  of  water  had  nowed  under  the  Hammu- 
bridges  of  Babylon.  By  his  decisive  victory  ^^^^^'^  ®°^' 
over  Chedor-Laomer  (Kudur-Lagamar),  Ham- 
murabi had  rescued  his  country  from  the  invader,  and 
organized  it  as  a  single  monarchy  with  Babylon  as  its 
capital.  His  military  fame  spread  abroad  and  won  him 
respect  far  and  wide.  Babylonian  troops  and  officers  were 
stationed  all  over  Canaan  and  Syria.  Colonists  from 
these  outlying  regions  came  and  settled  in  Babylon  for 
the  sake  of  trade.  Besides  the  celebrated  code  of  laws, 
we  possess  a  number  of  contract-tablets  and  letters 
belonging  to  this  epoch.  In  a  deed  of  the  reign  of 
Hammurabi's  grandfather  it  is  interesting  to  find  a 
witness  signing  himself  Abi-ramu,  that  is  Abram.  The 
hill  country  through  which  the  Jordan  flowed  evidently 
became  an  integral  part  of  the  Babylonian  empire,  for 
the  great-grandson  of  Hammurabi  styled  himself  "  King 
of  the  land  of  the  Amorites." 

"  Like  father  like  son "  is  a  proverb  often  belied, 


I 


I 


86 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


rabi's  suc- 
cessors. 
Foreign 
invasions. 


and  the  genius  of  a  great  lawgiver,  even  when  his  legal 
ingenuity  is  equalled  by  his  skill  with  the  sword,  cannot 
Hammu-  ensure  the  permanence  of  his  dynasty.  In 
less  than  two  centuries  the  sceptre  slipped 
from  its  enfeebled  hands,  and  passed  to  a 
Sumerian  house  of  eleven  successive  kings, 
who  occupied  the  throne  for  nearly  four  hundred  years, 
and  no  doubt  held  it  as  part  of  their  pious  creed  that 
the  end  of  all  things  could  not  be  delayed  if  once 
their  seat  were  shaken.  J^ut  shaken  it  was,  and  tlie 
Babylonian  world  wagged  on,  this  time  under  the  eye,  and 
the  heel,  of  Kassite  conquerors  from  Elam  (1780  B.C.), 
who  occupied  and  ruled  the  land  for  570  years,  and 
were  contemporaries  of  the  last  Hyksos  kings  and  the 
Eighteenth  Dynasty  Pharaohs  in  Egypt.  It  was  one 
of  these  Elaniito  potentates,  probably  himself  a  fire- 
worshippcr,  who  became  the  son-in-law  of  the  mono- 
theist  Akhnaton,  famous  for  his  religious  symbol  of  the 
Solar  Disk  (Chapter   IV.). 

During  this  foreign  occupation,  Syria  and  Palestine 
fell  away,  becoming  first  independent  and  then  subjects 
Rise  of  o^  KgyP*'  ^nd  the  high  priest  of  Assur  made 

Assyria.  himself  king  of  a  new  kingdom  of  Assyria, 
which  rapidly  grew  in  power,  and  proved  itself 
one  of  the  most  military  and  aggressive  states  of 
the  East.  Assur-yuballidb,  King  of  Assyria,  corre- 
sponded with  the  Pharaoh  Akhnaton,  and  reduced  Baby- 
lon, making  King  Burnaburiash  receive  his  crown  from 
him  as  his  vassal.  The  new  kingdom,  which  had  begun 
under  such  auspices,  grew  in  power,  till  Assur-yubal- 
lidh's  great-great-grandson,  Shalmaneser  I.  (about 
1300  B.C.),  claimed  to  be  supreme  over-lord  of  Western 
Asia.  He  humbled  the  Hittites,  and  founded  the  city  of 
Calah  on  the  Tigris ;  and  the  youthful  Assyria,  coming 
of  age,  snatched  the  inheritance  from  Babylon. 


f 


THE  ANCIENT  EAST:  FAR  AND  NEAR  87 

Meanwhile,  a  little  further  east,  on  the  other  side  of 
the  Euphrates  valley,  a  race  till  then  Httle  feared  or 
even  heard  of,  was  preparing  itself  for  its  great  The 
destiny.  The  names  ^' Persia  "and  *' Persian"  Persians, 
come  to  us,  through  the  Latin,  from  the  Greek  UEf)(TiQ 
and  n6>(Tijc,  which  represented  the  original  *'  Parsa  " 
((/.  Parsee).  Herodotus  tells  us  that  the  ancient  Medes 
(whom  the  Greeks  constantly  associated  and  confused 
with  the  Persians)  called  themselves  "  Arians,"  and  we 
fmd  in  fact  that  the  Persians  did  call  themselves  Arians 
and  their  country  Ariana,  whence  ''Eran"  and  the 
modern  Persian  "  Iran."  The  old  aristocratic  families 
of  Persia  long  retained  a  weakness  for  names  reminiscent 
of  their  high  antiquity,  e.g,  Ariobarzanes,  Ariarathes, 
Ariarannes,  Ariabignes,  Ariomardus.  It  is  not  an  un- 
common failing.  In  modern  England  it  would  not  be 
impossible  to  detect  here  and  there  a  lurking  fondness 
for  names  of  "  Norraanesque  "  flavour,  and  anything 
redolent,  or  seemingly  so,  of  the  victor  of  Hastings. 
These  Arians,  or,  as  they  are  usually  called  nowadays, 
Aryans,  were  closely  related  to  the  Aryans  who  invaded 
India,  and  like  them  started  from  the  steppes  between 
the  Caspian  Sea  and  Turkestan.  The  date  of  their 
migration  cannot  be  fixed.  But  it  is  known  that  the 
Indian  Aryans  occupied  the  Punjab  about  IGOO  b.c.  In 
the  Tel-el-Amarna  tablets,  the  correspondence  of  the 
Pharaoh  Akhnaton  (about  1400  b.c),  names  of  Persian 
princes  occur.  Perhaps  it  may  be  assumed  that  the 
Aryans  settled  in  Persia  about  1500  b.c,  or  a  little 
earlier.  ^ 

It  would  be  interesting,  if  it  were  possible,  to  ascer- 
tain the  date  of  their  great  prophet  Zarathustra,  better 
known  as  Zoroaster.     Extreme  dates,   early  Zoroaster, 
and  late,  have  been  defended  by  rival  critics, 
but  it  seems  pretty  clear  that  he  must  have  lived  and 


88 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


preached  at  least  before  1000  b.c.  Perhaps — who 
knows  ? — he  was  absorbed  in  his  rehgious  speculation 
and  pouring  out  his  soul  in  those  grand  psalms,  away  in 
the  uplands  of  Bactria,  at  the  same  time  that  the  boy- 
king  x\khnaton  was  defying  the  pharisaic  priesthood  of 
Thebes,  and  dreaming  his  own  dreams  of  God  at  Tel-el- 
Amarna. 

Like  Akhnaton,  Zoroaster  was  a  strict  monotheist, 
and  his  doctrine  is  expressed  in  the  oldest  part  of  the 
His  doc  Avesta,  the  Gathas,  or  Psalms,  which,  what- 
trine.  q^qj.    ^\^Q[y.   exact   date,   are,  with   the   Rig- 

Veda,  the  oldest  literature  of  the  Aryan  race.  In  his 
belief,  there  is  but  one  only  God,  who  is  a  holy  and 
beneficent  spirit,  giving  life  and  happiness  to  all  creation. 
Zoroaster  calls  him  Ahura-Mazda  (Ormuzd),  the  "  Om- 
niscient Lord."  It  is  true,  his  monotheism  liad  yet  a 
touch  of  dualism  in  it.  He  conceived  that  Ahura-Mazda 
was  opposed  by  a  wicked  spirit  of  evil,  whom  he  called 
Angro-Mainyus  (Ahriman),  the  origin  of  all  things  evil 
in  the  world.  These  two  rivals  were  engaged  in  an 
unending  contest  for  the  possession  of  mankind.  Ahura- 
Mazda  was  aided  by  six  immortal  spirits,  representing 
his  own  attributes,  Goodwill,  Piety,  Power,  Wisdom, 
Prosperity  and  Health :  Angro-Mainyus  was  supported 
by  the  Daevas,  the  Drug,  and  all  the  manifold  spirits  of 
evil. 

Zoroaster,  in  his  sensitive  soul,  realizing  the  im- 
minence of  the  peril  and  the  tragic  nature  of  the 
His  writ-  struggle,  out  of  pity  for  his  fellow-men  re- 
ings.  solved  to  devote  his  whole  life  and  energy  to 

preaching  the  true  religion  of  Ahura-Mazda  among 
them,  and  so  bringing  them  by  a  true  knowledge  to  a 
true  happiness.     Hear  him  speak.* 

**The  works  done  in  the  noonday  and  those  done  in 

♦  Westphq,!,  op.  cit.  pp.  438,  foil, 


THE  ANCIENT   EAST:  FAR  AND  NEAR    89 

secret,  0  Mazda,  and  the  great  faults  committed  to 
escape  the  chastisement  of  a  little  one,  both  these  and 
those,  all  together,  thou  watchest  them,  thou  seest  them 
all  with  thine  eyes.  .  .  . 

"  The  good  king  is  he  who  practiseth  good  in  his 
thoughts,  words  and  deeds,  in  obedience  to  the  teaching 
of  the  wise,  and  it  is  he,  0  Ahura,  who  of  all  beings 
embodieth  thee  the  best."  (Gatha  Ahunavaiti,  Ps.  4.) 

**  Two   things   there   are    which   I   desire   of   thee, 

0  Ahura  Mazda :  to  see  thee  and  to  hold  converse  with 

thee.  .  .  . 

*^  Teach  me  thy  law.  .  .  ."  (Gatha  Ahunavaiti,  Ps.  6.) 
''  If  it  be  true  that  the  other  world  existeth,  0  Mazda, 

give  me  a  sign  that  I  may  live  fully  in  that  world,  that 

1  may  attain  to  it  by  offering  thee  sacrifice  and  singing 
thy  glory.  .  .  . 

*'  0  Mazda,  I  wish  to  be  like  thee,  and  to  teach  my 
friends  to  be  like  thee  .... 

*'  I  have  one  thing  to  ask  thee ;  tell  me  the  truth, 

Ahura. 

*'  What  is  the  first  of  things  in  the  world  of  Good  ?  .  .  . 
W^ho  traced  out  a  path  for  the  sun  and  the  stars  ?  Who 
maketh  the  moon  to  wax  and  wane  ?  .  .  .  Who  made 
the  waters  and  the  plants  ?  .  .  .  Who  is  the  creator  of 
Vohu-Mano  (Goodwill)  ?  .  .  .  What  good  artist  made 
the  light  and  the  darkness?  .  .  .  Who  created  the 
aspiration  of  perfect  piety  ?  Who  planted  love  in  the 
father's  heart?  .  .  .  Tell  me,  how  one  may  perfectly 
know  in  the  world  what  is  right ;  and  how  my  soul  will 
be  able  to  go  and  find  joy  in  both  worlds.  .  .  .  Show  me 
Religion,  which  is  of  all  things  that  are  the  most  excel- 
lent, and  which  by  holiness  will  make  the  worlds  prosper 
that  follow  after  it.  ...  I  have  one  thing  to  ask  thee : 
tell  me  the  truth,  Ahura."    (Gatha  Ushtavaiti,  Ps.  2.) 

♦'  Let  me  know  when  cometb  the  hour  of  thy  universal 


jiM 


90 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE  ANCIENT  EAST:  FAR  AND  NEAR  91 


kingdom ;  the  hour,  0  Mazda,  wherein  all  my  doubts  shall 
be  dispelled."     (Gatha  Spenta  ]\Iainyu,  Ps.  2.) 

Such  was  Mazdeism,  pure  and  noble ;  Zoroaster  was 
its  only  prophet :  he  had  no  successor.  "  But  his  religion 
moulded  a  nation  whose  moral  worth  was  the  marvel  of 
the  ancient  world,  whose  power  secured  the  first  suc- 
cesses of  the  Aryans  over  the  Semites,  and  whose  meeting 
with  Israel  *  by  the  waters  of  Babylon '  revealed  so  close 
an  afiinity  between  the  religious  conceptions  of  the  two 
nations  that  the  Hebrew  prophets  did  not  hesitate  to 
call  Cyrus  *  the  shepherd  of  Jehovah,'  and  that  Cyrus 
himself,  touched  by  the  misfortunes  of  this  little  people 
with  beliefs  so  like  his  own,  immediately  broke  the 
chains  of  the  Jewish  exiles,  and  thus,  unwittingly,  saved 
the  cradle  of  Christianity."  " 

The  people  to  whom  Zoroaster  addressed  his 
preaching  were  the  brothers,  or  at  any  rate  the  first 
The  Aryans  cousins,  of  those  other  Aryans  who  invaded 
in  India.  and  conquered  India.  Here  again  exact 
dates  fail  us,  but  we  know  that  the  Aryan 
conquerors  occupied  the  Punjab,  if  nothing  more, 
about  IGOO  B.C.  The  Dravidians,  dark-skinned  abo- 
rigines, fought  the  fair  Aryan  invaders  descending  from 
the  north-western  passes,  but  were  beaten  and  driven 
south.  The  most  ancient  literature  of  India  consists 
of  the  Vedas,  a  collection  originally  of  four,  and 
The  Eig-  finally  of  seven,  great  sacred  books.  The 
^^^^'  oldest  of  these  is  the  Rig-Veda,  a  collection 

of  1,200  hymns  and  other  songs,  not  all  religious, 
with  commentaries.  Another  of  the  Vedas  is  the 
TheMaha-  Mahabharata,  the  *^  Great  Bharata,"  or 
bharata.  a  Q^eat  History  of  the  race  of  Bharata,"  in 
eighteen  books  containing  214,778  lines,  almost  ten 
times  the  length  of  the  Iliad  and  Odyssey  combined  ! 

*  Westphal,  op.  cit.  p.  142. 


On  the  historical  foundation  of  a  quarrel  between  two 
great  Aryan  clans  in  North-Western  India,  this  great 
epic  tells  the  story  of  a  struggle  between  the  hundred 
sons  of  Dhrita-rashtra  and  five  sons  of  his  brother  Pandu, 
all  descendants  of  Bharata,  King  of  the  Moon.     The 
cousins  do  not  get  on  very  well  together.    When  the 
eldest  of  Pandu's  sons,  Yudhishthir,  is  appointed  heir- 
apparent,  the  feud  comes  to  a  head.     Dhrita-rashtra's 
sons  plot  to  burn  the  five  brothers  in  a  house  specially 
constructed   for   the   purpose.     They  escape,   however, 
into  a  forest  country,  where  they  get  themselves  wives 
and  powerful  friends,  return  with  an  army  and  force  a 
partition  of  the  empire,  obtaining  the  western  half  of  it. 
But   trouble  is  in  store.    Yudhishthir,  who  is  an  in- 
veterate gambler,  loses  in  a  game  of  dice  his  kingdom, 
his  brothers,  himself  and  his  wife.     But  the  doom  of 
slavery  is  commuted  to  one  of  banishment.     Then  the 
whole  family  disappear  once  more  and  live  in  exile  in 
the  forests  for  twelve  years.     At  the  end  of  that  time 
they  serve  a  foreign  king  for  a  year  in  various  humble 
disguises.     They  have  the  good  fortune  to  be  of  great 
use  to  him  in  a  feud  with  a   neighbour,  and   having 
revealed  their  true  identity  they  are  in  return  assisted 
by  him  to  regain  their  lost  kingdoms.     The  climax  of 
the   great   struggle   is    reached   in   the    duel   between 
Pandu's  son  Arjun  and  the  hero  Kama,  who  correspond 
respectively  to  Achilles  and  Hector.     Arjun  is  a  famous 
archer  and  uses  celestial  armour  and  weapons.     The 
rivals  are  equal,  and  in  the  last  fight,  which  decides  the 
fate  of  the  eighteen-day  battle,  Arjun  triumphs  through 
a  lucky  accident.     The  hundred  sons  of  Dhrita-rashtra 
are  all  killed,  their  old  father  dies  of  a  broken  heart, 
and  the  sons  of  Pandu  come  into  their  own  and  more. 
The  story  is  embellished  with  many  legends  and  digres- 
sions, such  as  the  battle  between  gods  and  Titans,  love 


92 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


stories  of  various  great  heroes,  the  pathetic  devotion  of 
Savitri,  the  Vedic  Alcestis,  to  her  husband,  and  the  vicis- 
situdes of  the  Sun,  alternately  swallowed  and  vomited 
forth  hy  the  monster  llaghu,  who  apparently  adopts 
this  original  method  of  regulating  solar  eclipses ! 

The  Ramayana,  in  seven  books  containing  4H,000 
lines,  is  the  history  of  the  marvellous  exploits  of 
The  Rama-  the  hero,  llama,  performed  in  the  closing 
yana.  period  of  the  Aryan  conquest  of  Hindustan. 

The  historical  foundation  of  the  poem  was  the 
expedition  of  Rama  to  Southern  India  and  Ceylon, 
probably  in  the  fourteenth  century  b.c,  but  over  it  the 
poet's  imagination  has  reared  an  elaborate  super- 
structure of  legend  and  allegory,  in  which  the  warrior- 
prince  becomes  an  embodiment  of  the  spirit  of  good, 
and  his  enemies  th(^  manifestations  of  evil  in  the  world. 
King  Dasaratha,  a  middle-aged  man  of  nine-thousand, 
is  reigning  in  Oudh,  with  850  wives,  and  never  a  single 
son  to  whom  to  bequeath  the  throne  which  advancing 
age  warns  him  he  will  one  day  have  to  quit.  At  last  the 
sacrifice  of  a  horse  melts  the  heart  of  the  god,  and  he 
becomes  the  happy  father  of  four  sons,  one  of  whom  is 
Rama,  who  is  destined  to  destroy  the  Rakshas  or  black- 
skinned  cannibals  of  Ceylon  and  their  king,  the  monster 
Ravan.  Thanks  to  court  intrigues  and  the  charitable 
wire-pulling  of  another  wife  of  Dasaratha,  who  was 
jealous  of  the  hero's  mother,  Rama  is  banished  the 
kingdom  for  fourteen  years.  He  shakes  off  the  dust  of 
the  palace  and  leaves  only  his  royal  sandals  behind 
to  keep  his  place  for  him  and  remind  the  world  of  his 
existence,  and,  with  his  devoted  young  wife,  Sita, 
plunges  into  the  trackless  forests,  where  he  is  lost  to 
view.  At  this  point  there  enters  on  the  scene  the  giant 
Ravan,  the  villain  of  the  plot,  a  forbidding  monster 
with  ten  heads  and  twenty  arms  (note  his  proper  sense 


THE  ANCIENT  EAST:  FAR  AND  NEAR  93 

of  proportion) !     He  hears  the  fame   of  the  beautiful 
Sita,  lies  in  wait,  decoys  her  husband  and  kidnaps  her, 
conveying  her  in  that  most  modern  and  yet,  in  literature, 
most  ancient  contrivance,  an  aerial  car,  to  his  city  of 
Lanka,  the  capital  of  Ceylon.     There  the  fair  captive  is 
consigned  to  the  watchful  keeping  of  ungainly  relatives 
of  Ravan's,  ogresses  with  too  few  or  too  many  eyes, 
and  affecting  curious  fashions  in  headpieces  borrowed 
from  crocodiles,  leopards  and  wild  boars.     But  neither 
flattery,  nor    entreaty,  nor   threat   can   overcome   the 
virtuous    Sita's   abhorrence   for   her   multiple   and  ill- 
favoured   suitor.     Meanwhile,    Rama   the   disconsolate, 
helped  by  a  host  of  marvellous  semi-divine  monkeys 
and  bears,  gifted  with  articulate  speech,  throws  a  bridge 
over  the  sea  to  Ceylon  and  sits  down  to  a  vigorous 
siege  of  Lanka.     The  defence  is  protracted,  and  as  full 
of  incident  as  its  later  revival  at  Troy.     At  last  Rama 
and    the   monster  Ravan   meet   in    single    combat,  a 
struggle  to  the  death.     Rama  strikes  ofi'  Ravan's  ten 
heads,  which  grow  again  as  many  as  a  hundred  times,, 
and   the   contest  lasts   seven  days,  till,  by  the  divine 
intervention  of  Brahma,  Rama  triumphs  over  his  pros- 
trate foe.    Lanka   falls  and  the  fair  Sita  flies  to  the 
arms  of  her  long-lost  lord.     To  cut  a  long  story  short, 
Rama  then  reigns  eleven  thousand  years  (evidently  a 
true   son   of  his    father   with  the   family  failing!),  is 
gloriously  transfigured  and  ascends  to  heaven,  having 
finished   his   allotted  work,  crushed   the   demons   and 
rescued  suffering  humanity. 

Thus  the  Vedic  poets  on  the  early  history  of  their 
race.     The  Vedas  are  the  oldest  literary  remains  of  the 
Indian  Aryans,  and,  indeed,  of  all  the  Indo-  The  Indian 
European    family    of  nations.      They   were  Aryans, 
composed    probably   about    1400    e.g.;    at    any    rate, 
they  are  of  very  respectable  antiquity.     Their  myths 


I 


94 


THE  ANCIENT  WOBLD 


were  the  source  of  Greek  aud  lloiuan  and  all  Western 
mythologies.  Their  religion,  unlike  the  Maz deism  of 
Persia,  was  decidedly  polytheistic.  The  dead  were  hurnt, 
aud  it  was  believed  that  the  eyes  of  the  departed 
went  to  the  sun,  his  breath  to  the  wind,  and  his  several 
parts  to  tlie  sky,  earth,  sea  and  plants,  while  the  spark 
of  life  itself  was  carried  by  the  god  of  fire  in  a  flame  to 
the  land  of  the  blest.  The  poems  show  us  the  Aryans 
permanently  settled  on  both  banks  of  the  Indus.  Castes 
are  as  yet  unknown,  and  so  is  the  burning  of  widows, 
which  was  an  **  improvement "  introduced  at  a  much 
later  stage.  Women  hold  a  high  position,  husband  and 
wife  being  joint-rulers  of  the  house.  Most  of  the 
ordinary  metals  are  known,  and  so  is  shipbuilding. 
The  men  fight  in  chariots,  like  the  heroes  of  the 
Iliad  and  Ilittite  chiefs,  and  like  them,  again,  use 
horses,  not  elephants,  for  war  purposes.  Wealth — as 
so  often  in  primitive  states  of  society — is  reckoned 
in  heads  of  cattle,  and  society  is  divided  into  four 
grades,  the  Kshatriyas  or  nobles,  the  Brahmans  or 
priests,  the  Vaisyas  or  peasants,  and  lastly  the  Sutras 
who  do  the  menial  drudgery  of  hewing  wood  and  draw- 
ing water,  and  are  probably  non-Aryans  and  prisoners 
of  war. 

But  not  even  India  was  the  end  of  the  world.     The 
glorious  sun,  **  rejoicing  as  a  giant  to  run  his  course," 
CMaa  ^^^  come  from  far  and  looked  with  impartial 

eye  on  the  work  and  pleasure  of  many  broad 
lands  before  rousing  the  dusky  Indian  to  another  day 
of  heat  and  struggle  against  the  Aryan  invader.  Of 
Japan,  **the  land "  above  all  others  "of  the  liising 
Sun,"  as  its  national  emblem  reminds  us,  we  know 
nothing  belonging  to  this  early  date.  But  for  the 
beginnings  of  China  we  have  a  fair  quantity  of  material. 
At  the  epoch  which  we  are  considering,  1700-1300  b.c, 


I 


THE  ANCIENT  EAST:  FAR  AND  NEAR  95 

when  the  Eighteenth  Dynasty  was  ruling  in  Egypt, 
and  the  Cretan  and  Hittite  empires  were  in  their  prime, 
the  Assyrian  in  its  childhood,  and  the  Persian  in  its 
cradle,  aud  while  the  Aryans  were  pouring  through  the 
passes  into  India,  China  was  being  governed  by  the 
Shang  Dynasty  (176G-1122  b.c),  and  busy  keeping  out 
of  its  frontiers  the  ancestors  of  the  Huns. 

But  this  dynasty  had  had  many  predecessors  in  the 
Celestial  Empire.  China  is  called  by  the  ancients 
the  land  of  the  Seres—perhaps  Isaiah's  Sinim  ^^^^  ^^^ 
are  the  Chinese— and  in  the  Middle  Ages  it  ori^nof  the 
appears  as  Cathay.  The  present  name  is  ^^^^^^e. 
derived  from  the  Tsin  or  Chin  Dynasty  which  obtained 
the  throne  a  little  before  200  b.c.  The  national  tradi- 
tions made  the  not  uncommon  claim  that  the  people 
were  aborigines  and  had  possessed  the  land  from  the 
beginning  of  time.  To  less  partial  eyes  the  earliest 
Chinese  hieroglyphs  would  seem  to  suggest  an  affinity 
with  the  Mongols.     But  the  question  is  still  suhjudlce. 

According  to  the  Chinaman's  own  account  of  his 
national  history,  Pankii,  the  first  Chinaman,  and  also 
the  first  human  being,  lived  millions  of  Prehistoric 
years  ago,  and  was  followed  by  ten  long  dynasties, 
lines  of  sovereigns,  including  *' Heavenly  Emperors," 
"  Terrestrial  Emperors,"  *' Human  Emperors,"  "Nest- 
builders,"  and  ''the  Fire-Producer,"  the  Chinese  Pro- 
metheus who— note  how  much  more  scrupulous  the 
Chinese  conscience  is  than  the  Greek !— did  not  steal 
but  merely  borrowed  fire  from  the  stars  and  taught  its 
use  to  men. 

Emerging  from  these  aeons  of  long-lived  mythical 
sovereigns,    we     reach     the    first    so-called  The  three 
historical  emperor  in  the  person   of  Fu-hi,  emperors: 
whose  date  tradition  assigns  as  2852-2738  b.c.  '^''"^• 
But  even  here  our  suspicions  are  aroused  by  an  unusual 


96 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLl 


royal  attribute  ;  his  lower  extremity  terminated  in  a  fish- 
tail, which,  though  excusable  enough  in  a  mermaid,  must 
be  highly  inconvenient  to  the  occupant   of  a  throne. 
Despite  his  physical  peculiarity,  Fu-hi  established  social 
order  in  the   place  of  chaos,  abolished  the  matriarchate 
and  instituted  matrimony.     Perhaps  he  felt  keenly  the 
drawbacks  of  **  laisser  faire  "  and  a  want  of  system  and 
uniformity  I    He  was  a  man  of  versatile   genius  who 
taught  his  people  hunting,  the  care  of  flocks,  writing, 
the   manufacture   of  musical   instruments,   and    even, 
though  it  must  have  cost  him  a  pang,  the  gentle  art  of 
Shon-nung.     fishing.     His  successor  Sbon-nung  was  less 
remarkable.    He  merely  invented  agricultural 
implements  and  discovered  and  made  known  the  me- 
dicinal properties  of  various  plants.     After  him  came 
Huang-ti.      Huang-ti,  the   ''Yellow  Emperor,"  who  ex- 
tended the  empire,  which  originally  lay  on 
the  banks  of  the  Yellow  Eiver,  and  was  the  first  to 
build  cities  and  temples  and  to  regulate  the  calendar. 

These  three  monarchs,  usually  known  as  *'  The  Three 
Emperors,"  are,  it  is  plain,  largely  mythical.    The  Shu- 

Jhu/''^        ^^"^^'  .^^   '*Book   of  History"   compiled  by 
Confucius,  does  not  mention  them.     But  it 
is  loud  in  the  praises  of  Yau  and  his  successor  Shun 
(about  2250  ij.c).     King  Yau  tried  for  nine  years   to 
combat  a  great  flood  of  the  Yellow  River,  and  in  very 
shame   at  his  failure  abdicated.    Shun   had  a  tender 
conscience  compensated  by  strong  nerves.     Outside  his 
palace  gate  he  hung  a  blackboard  and  a  large  gong. 
Any  subject  who  was  passing  was  free  to  record  hfs 
grievances  on  the  board  and  call  the  royal  attention  to 
them  by  beating  the  gong.     On  his  demise,  the  kingdom 
passed  to  Yu  and  the  Hia  Dynasty,  which  kept  ft  till 
1766  B.C.,  when  it  was  replaced  by  the  Shang  or  Yin 
dynasty,  which  remained  in  possession  till  ^1122  b.c. 


THE  ANCIENT  EAST:  EAR  AND  NEAR  97 

The  Hiung-nu,  who  may  have  been  the  Huns  or  their 
ancestors,  were  troublesome  at  this  period,  and  had  to 
be  kept  in  check  by  the  formation  of  military  dukedoms 
the  most  powerful  of  which  eventually  overthrew  its 
impenal  master  and  founded  the  famous  Chou  Dynasty 
(1122  B.C.)  which  lasted  till  249  b.c. 

Nor  need  the  history  of  that  period,  however  distant, 
be  a  mere  list  of  names  and  dates.     Literary  The  Shu 
fragments  of  the  age  have  come  down  to  us  ^i^&- 
in  the  Shu-King  Collection.     Says  King  Shun,  he  of  the 
blackboard  and  gong  (about  2250  b.c.)  :* 

"  We  must  deal  humanely  with  those  that  come 
from  afar,  mstruct  those  that  are  near,  esteem  and  hold 
m  honour  the  men  of  talent,  believe  and  trust  men  that 
are  virtuous  and  charitable,  and  have  no  dealings  with 
ttiose  whose  manners  are  corrupt." 

"Let  the  children  of  princes  and  great  men  be 
smcere  and  aflfable,  indulgent,  accommodating,  and 
grave :  teach  them  to  ba  firm  without  bein.  bird  or 
Ti-oud'-^'^^  "'''"'  discornment,  but  let  them   not   be 

meal?  ^""'''   ''"  ''"'^''''   """^  ^'°^'^  "^''^^^  ^"^^  J^s* 
"  Take  not  a  side  without  careful  thought  " 
"  Must  not  the  people  bo  loved  ?    Must  not'  the  peonle 

ttronc  !'■'''*  ""  ""'  "'^  °°*  *^^^  ^^'-  «'*'''"- 

thus?"^     '^'"'    ^''"''''    ^'"""'^^°'''    e-^presses    himself 

"  Virtue  is  the  foundation  of  good  government :  and 
this  government  consists  firstly  in  providing  for  the 
people  the    hmgs  necessary  for  its  existence  and  lev. 

vhis.-'      ""'  '^"  ^'^^'^^  '°^  *"  -^-^^  ^'^^  people 

♦  Westphal,  op.  cit.,  p.  124. 


98  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

And  here  is  an  extract  from  the  Shi-King,  or  Book  of 
Hongs,  the  earliest  hymns  of  which  helong  to 


The  Shi-King. 


the  period  of  the  Exodus  : 


I 


I 


O  all  ye  wise  men  of  the  earth, 

Know  ye  not  the  law  of  virtue  ? 

IaO  who  hateth  uo  man  and  covetcth  nothing, 

How  should  he  not  do  what  is  just  and  good  ? 

Oh,  how  truly  oxccUont  is  ho, 

Who  would  not  eat  the  bread  of  idleness  1 

Lot  us  not  yield  ourselves  up  to  excess ; 

Let  us  think  always  of  the  duties  of  our  estate. 

Let  us  not  imitate  the  savages  in  the  love  of  pleasure ; 

The  good  man  continuoth  grave  and  thoughtful. 

Let  us  not  yield  ourselves  to  excess. 

Let  us  think  of  the  future. 

A  cold  and  hard  rehgion,  perhaps,  and  innocent  of 
the  softening  element  of  love,  but,  clearly,  the  ethics  of 
a  long-etablishod  civilization  in  an  extremely  high  state 
of  development. 

♦  Wosti)hal,  op.  cit.,  p.  127. 


CHAPTER  VII 

A   NEW   NATION 

•'  The  Lord  is  a  man  of  war  : 

The  Lord  is  his  name. 

Pharaoh's  chariots  and  his  host  hath  he  cast  into  the  sea  • 

And  his  chosen  captains  are  sunk  in  the  Rod  Sea. 

The  deeps  cover  them  ; 

They  went  down  into  the  depths  like  a  stone. 



Thou  didst  blow  with  thy  wind,  the  sea  covered  them  : 
They  sank  as  lead  in  the  mighty  waters." 



And  Miriam  answered  them, 

"Sing  yo  to  the  Lord,  for  he  hath  triumphed  gloriously  • 
The  horse  and  his  rider  hath  he  thrown  into  the  sea."    ' 

—Exodus  xv.  3, 4,  5,  10,  21. 

The  Eighteenth  Dynasty  in  Egypt  had  ended  in  failure 
at  home  and  abroad.     The  conservatism  of  a  privileged 
and  well-organized  priesthood  had  proved  too  The  1^111^ 
strong  for  premature  reformation,   and  the  t^^^th 
dreamer^s  ideal  of  goodwill  and  non-resistance  ag^gSve 
had  been  convicted  of  being  unpractical  in  ^^^^ios, 
the  face  of  that  ingrained  human  habit  of  setthng  dis- 
putes   by  an   appeal  to  force   or  cunning.      But   the 
accession  of   the  commander-in-chief,   Horemheb,  had 
revived  the  military  spirit  of  Egypt,  and  paved  the  way 
for  a  vigorous  reaction.     This  reached  its  height  under 
the  Nineteenth  Dynasty  which  within  a  year  or  two  was 
founded  by  Eameses  L,  and  included   also  the  great 

99  ^ 


100 


THE  ANClEiST  WORLD 


Barneses  I. 


Seti  I. 


Eamescs  II.,  the  **  Sesoslris "  of  the  Greeks,  and 
Merenptah,  both  of  them  closely  connected  with  the 
history  of  the  Jewish  Exodus.  There  were  to  be  no 
half-measures  now.  Eameses  I.  proceeded  at 
once  to  justify  his  seizure  of  the  throne  by 
engaging  the  country  in  a  great  struggle  with  the 
Hittites,  and  carrying  the  war  into  the  enemy's  country. 
The  result  was  a  treaty.  His  son,  Seti  I., 
continued  his  aggressive  policy,  and  warred 
successfully  against  Ethiopians,  Arabians,  and  Hittites, 
fighting  these  last  at  Kadesli,  and  concluding  a  treaty 
with  them  on  equal  terms.  He  was  also  a  great 
builder,  and  was  responsible  for  the  great  Hall  of 
Columns  at  Karnak,  which  shows,  by  the  way  in  which 
it  has  withstood  time  and  still  more  destructive  man, 
that  its  author  did  not  stint  expenditure  in  his  contracts. 
But  both  in  the  field  and  in  architecture,  Seti  was 
surpassed  by  his  more  illustrious  son,  Eameses  II. ,  who 
Eameses  II.  bears,  perhaps,  the  most  redoubtable  and 
♦«  sesostris."  i)est  popularly  known  name  of  all  the  long 
line  of  Egyptian  Pharaohs.  North,  south,  east,  and 
w^est,  he  spread  the  terror  and  fame  of  Egyptian  arms, 
beginning  in  his  early  youth  with  a  defeat  of  Sardinian 
and  Tyrrhenian  invaders,  while  his  father  was  yet  alive. 
Soon  after  his  accession  he  conquered  Ethiopia,  and  in 
the  fifth  year  of  his  reign  began  a  tremendous  life-and- 
death  struggle  with  a  powerful  confederacy  led  by  the 
Hittites,  and  including  Mysians,  Lycians,  and  Dardans, 
occupying  the  land  of  Troy.  This  formidable  alliance 
possessed  2500  war-chariots.  By  personally  plunging 
into  the  thick  of  the  fray,  Eameses  saved  his  army  from 
destruction  in  a  cleverly  laid  ambush.  On  the  following 
day  occurred  the  great  and  decisive  battle  of  the  cam- 
paign, after  which  the  Hittites  and  their  friends  retired 
to  Kadesh  and  agreed  to  peace.     Eameses  subsequently 


A  NEW  NATION 


101 


took  Shalam,  probably  the  same  as  Jerusalem,  Maram 
(Merom)  and  Ascalon,  and  after  fifteen  years  of  alterna- 
tive war  and  peace,  finally  concluded  with  the  Hittites 
a  solemn  treaty,  inscribed  on  a  temple  wall  at  Karnak, 
providing  for  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance,  extra- 
dition, and  the  mutual  protection  of  commerce.*  To 
cement  the  alliance  Eameses  married  the  daughter  of 
the  Hittite  king  Khetasar,  who  afterwards  c'^ame  to 
Egypt  on  a  visit  to  his  illustrious  son-in-law. 

Like  all  mighty  kings,  Eameses  had  his  court  poet, 
who,  if  need  was,  could  make  tlattery  and  exaggeration 
do  duty  for  poetic  inspiration.     Thus  Pentaur  The  Poem 
pamts   in  glorious  colours  the   great   battle  of  Centaur. 
^^■i"f,"'«  Hittites  t:-  "l^the 

''.  .  .  Then  the  vile  Kheta  chief  made  an  hittites. 
advance  with  men  and  horses  numerous  as  sand ;  they 
were  three  men  on  a  car ;  they  had  joined  with 'every 
champion  of  Khetaland,  equipped  with  all  war-crear,  in 
countless  numbers ;    they   lay   in    ambush    hidden '  to 
north-west  of  the  town  Katesh ;  then  they  charged  the 
brigade  of  Ea  Harmachis  in  the  centre,  as  they  were 
marching  on,  and  were  not   prepared  to   fight.     Foot 
and  horse  of  King  Eameses  gave  way  before  them  ;  they 
then  took  Katesh   on   the  western   bank  of  Hanruta  • 
this  news  was  told  to  the  King;  then  he  rose  as  Mentu' 
he  seized  his  arms  for  battle  ;  he  clutched  his  corselet 
Ike  Bar  in  his  hour ;  the  great  horse  that  bore   him 
Victory    in   Thebes'  his   name,    from    the    stable    of 
Eameses  Miamon,  within  the  van.     The  Kinc.  drew  him- 
self  up,  he  pierced  the  line  of  the  foe,  the  vile  Kheta  • 
he  was  all  alone,  no  other  with  him.     When  he  advanced 
to  survey  behind  him,  he  found  there  encircled  him  2500 
chariots  stopping  his  way  out.  .  .  .  There  was  no  chief 

♦  See  Chap.  V. 

t  Abbreviated  from  "  Kecords  of  the  Past,"  ij.  p.  68, 


102 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


A  NEW  NATION 


I 


"with  me,  no  marshal,  no  captain  of  archers,  no  officers ; 
fled  were  my  troops   and  horse.     I  was  left   alone  of 
them  to  fight  the  foe.     Then  said  King  Eameses,  *  What 
art  thou,  my  father  Ammon  ?    What  father  denies  his 
son  ?    For   have   I  done  aught  without  thee  ?    Have 
I  not  stepped  or  stayed  looking  to  thee,  not  transgress- 
ing the  decisions  of  thy  mouth,  nor  passing  far  astray 
heyond  thy   counsels?     Sovran  Lord  of    Egypt,   who 
makest  to  how  down  the  peoples  that  withstand  thee  ; 
what  are  these  Amu*  to  thy  heart?     Ammon  hrings 
them  low  who  know  not  God.  ...  I  am  amid  multitudes 
unknown,  nations  gathered  against  me  ;  I  am  alone,  no 
other  with  me ;    my  foot  and  horse  have  left  me.    I 
called  aloud  to  them,  none  of  them  heard;  I  cried  to 
them.    I  find  Ammon  worth   more  than  millions  of 
soldiers,    100,000  cavalry,  10,000   brothers   and   sons, 
were  they  gathered  all  in  one.     No  works  of  many  men 
avail,  Ammon  against  them.'  .  .  .  Ra  heard  when   I 
called;  he  put  his  hand  to  me,  I  was  glad.     He  called 
to  me  behind :  *  Rameses  Miamon,  I  am  with  thee.  .  .  . 
I  am  worth  to  thee  100,000  joined  in  one ;  I  am  Sovran 
Lord  of  Victory,  loving  valour.*  ...     I  am  as  Mentu,  I 
shoot  to  the  right ;  I  seize  on  my  left,  like  Bar  in  his 
fury  against  them;  I  find  2500  chariots,  I  am  amidst 
them;    then  were  they  overthrown   before  my  steeds; 
not  one  of  them  found  his  hand  to  fight,  their  hearts 
shrank  within  them ;    their  heads  all   dropped,    they 
knew  not  how  to  shoot,  they  found  no  heart  to  grasp 
the  spear;    I  made  them  fall  into  the   water  as  fall 
crocodiles,  they  tumbled  headlong  one  over  another ;  I 
slew  them ;  my  pleasure  was  that  none  of  them  should 
look  behind  him,  nor  any  return  ;  whoever  falls  of  them 
he  must  not  raise  himself  up.  .  .  .  Each  of  them  calls 
to  his  fellow  saying,  *  No  mortal  born  is  he  whoso  is 

♦  Asiatics. 


103 


among  us,  Set  the  mighty  of  strength  ;  Bar  in  bodily 
form.'  .  .  .  Coming  to  the  junction  of  roads,  the  King 
pursued  them  as  a  griffin.  I  was  slaying  them,  none 
escaped  me.  .  .  ." 

At  this  point  the  squire,  Menna,  expresses  anxiety 
for  his  royal  master's  safety,  but  Rameses  reassures 
him  and  then  rounds  on  his  army  and  very  properly 
abuses  them  for  their  cowardice  and  ingratitude  to  the 
king  who  loaded  them  with  benefits  and  honours.  The 
carnage  was  fearful. 

'*  They  found  all  the  tribes  through  whom  I  pierced 
strewn  in  carnage,  whelmed  amid  their  blood,  with  all 
brave  fighters  of  Khetaland,  with  children  and  brothers 
of  their  chief.  Morning  lighted  the  field  of  Katesh ;  no 
space  was  found  to  tread  on  for  their  multitude." 

After  once  more  upbraiding  his  soldiers,  the  king 
renewed  the  conflict — 

'*At  dawn  he  joined  in  fray  of  battle;  he  went 
terrible  to  fight,  as  a  bull  terrible  with  pointed  horns 
he  rose  against  them  as  Mentu  ordering  the  fray,  fight- 
ing fierce  as  a  hawk.  .  .  .  Whoever  approaches  him, 
sinks  to  ruin;  they  were  brought  to  kiss  the  dust. 
King  Rameses  prevailed  over  them,  he  slew  them,  they 
escaped  not,  they  were  overthrown  under  his  steeds, 
they  were  strewn  huddled  in  their  gore.  Then  the  vile 
Kheta  Prince  sent  to  do  homage  to  the  great  name  of 
King  Rameses." 

Rameses  then  called  a  council  of  war  of  his  chief 
officers,  who  advised  him  to  accept  the  proffered  terms, 
which  he  did,  and  led  his  army  back  in  peace  to 
Egypt. 

Rameses  was  an  organizer  both  political  and  finan- 
cial; he  may  have  found  a  training-ground  for  his 
powers  at  home,  for  he  had  a  family  of  a  hundred  and 
eleven  sons  and  fifty-nine  daughters ! 


104 


THE  ANCIENT  WOULD 


A  NEW  NATION 


Besides  being  a  great  conqueror,  Barneses  has  claims 
to  fame  as  a  builder.    He  erected  great  new  temples 
Barneses      and  embellished  and  enriched  those  already 
a  builder,     existing. 

I  met  a  traveller  from  an  antique  land, 
Who  said,  Two  vast  and  trunkless  legs  of  stone 
Stand  in  the  desert,  near  them  on  the  sand 
Half-sunk  a  shattered  visage  lies,  whose  frown 
And  wrinkled  lip  and  sneer  of  cold  command 
Tell  that  the  sculptor  well  those  passions  read. 
Which  yet  survive,  stamped  on  those  lifeless  things, 
The  hand  that  mocked  them  and  the  heart  that  fed. 
And  on  the  pedestal  these  words  appear  : 
"  My  name  is  Ozymandias,  King  of  Kings, 
Look  on  my  works,  ye  mighty,  and  despair." 
Nothing  beside  remains,  round  the  decay 
Of  that  colossal  wreck,  boundless  and  bare, 
The  lone  and  level  sands  stretch  far  away.* 

Bameses  reigned  sixty-seven  years  and  died  at  the 
age  of  ninety-six.  A  king  of  this  type,  especially  in  an 
Barneses  age  when  a  critical  treatment  of  history  is 
stones.  g|.Qj  unknown,  infallibly  becomes  the  hero  of 

a  thousand  and  one  exploits,  many  of  them  of  doubtful 
authenticity.  They  collect  round  the  great  names  as 
inevitably  as  the  steel-filings  fly  to  the  magnet  and 
cling  to  it.  Bameses  II.  appears  in  the  early  historians 
as  "  Sesostris,"  and,  with  the  help  of  Manetho, 
Herodotus  and  Diodorus  Siculus,  leads  a  crowded  and 
glorious  life.  His  father  ordered  all  the  boys  through- 
out his  kingdom  who  had  been  born  on  the  same  day 
as  young  Bameses  to  be  collected  together  and  to  be 
brought  up  with  him,  hoping  that  his  son  would  benefit 
by  the  friendly  rivalry  at  the  time  and  have  his  play- 
mates as  a  body  of  firm  friends  in  after  life.  Every 
morning  the  boys  had  to  walk  five  miles  before  they 
were  allowed  to  touch  any  breakfast.     As  soon  as  they 

♦  Shelley  (Ozymandias  =  Rameses  IT.).! 


105 


were  old  enough,  they  were  all  sent  out  into  the  eastern 
desert  bordering  on  the  Bed  Sea,  to  hunt  and  fight 
the  semi-savage  natives  and  learn  generally  to  endure 
hardships.  Then  they  were  despatched  in  the  opposite 
direction  and  fought  the  Libyan  tribes. 

Some  thousands  of  lepers  and  other  unclean  people 
had  been  given  the  deserted  Hyksos  town  of  Avaris  in  the 
eastern  delta  to  dwell  in.     They  had  formed  osarsiph 
themselves  into  a  regularly  organized  com-  and  the 
munity  under  a  priest  of  Heliopolis  named  ^®^®"' 
Osarsiph,  who  had  his  own  ends  to  serve.     Soon  they 
began  to  issue  from  their  settlement  and  raid  the  neigh- 
bouring parts  of  Egypt,  and  at  every  success  grew  bolder 
and  went  further.     The  king,  who  was  very  superstitious 
and  had  been  told  that  Egypt  would  be  under  the  heel 
of   the    Unclean    for    thirteen  years,   pusillanimously 
retired  before  their  onset  southwards  into  Ethiopia,  and 
left  the  country  at  their  mercy.     The  thirteen  years 
being    over,   the    spiritless   monarch    screwed   up    his 
courage  and,  mainly  by  the  help  of  his  son,  Bameses, 
expelled  the  interlopers. 

''Cowards  die  many  times  before  their  death,"  but 
a  time  comes  when  they  die  to  some  purpose.  Bameses 
ascended  his  father's  throne  and  the  com-  Accession 
plexion  of  affairs  changed.  He  had  conceived  and 
a  daring  plan  for  the  conquest  of  the  world. 
But  first  he  must  make  sure  of  his  hold  on  the  support 
0^  Egypt.  So  he  made  various  administrative  improve- 
ments, redressed  grievances  and  gave  a  general  amnesty 
to  all  the  inmates  of  the  public  prisons.  Then  he 
equipped  an  army  of  600,000  foot,  24,000  horse,  and 
27,000  war-chariots,  all  under  the  command  of  his  boy- 
hood's companions,  and  on  all  these  soldiers  bestowed 
allotments  of  the  pick  of  the  land  in  consideration  of 
personal  service — a  kind  of  anticipation  of  our  Norman 


reforms. 


106 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


feudal  sjstem.*    First  he  reduced  Ethiopia  and  imposed 
on  it  a  tribute  of  ebony,  gold  and  elephants'  tusks. 

Conquests.     ^^^^  ^^  ^^^^  ^  ^^^*  ^^  ^^^  ^^^^  ^^  conquer  all 
the  coasts   of  the  Indian   Ocean,   while  he 

himself    pursued    his   triumphant   march   beyond   the 

Ganges,  subduing  all  the  nations  lying  across  his  imth. 

Then  he  turned  and  beat  the  Scythians  by  the  river 

Tanais  (Don),  founded  an  Egyptian  colony  in  Colchis, 

on  the  banks  of  the  Phasis,  at  the  east  end  of  the  Black 

Sea,  conquered  Asia  Minor,  the  Cyclades  and  part  of 

Thrace,  and  was  only  turned  back  by  the  severity  of 

the  climate   and   difficulty  of  obtaining  supplies.    In 

all  the  countries  he  subdued   he   put  up   pillars  with 

appropriate  inscriptions  commemorating  the  courage  or 

cowardice  of  his  enemies. 

After  a  nine  years'  absence  from  home,  he  returned 
to  Egypt,  and  had  no  sooner  crossed  the  frontier  when 
A  narrow  at  Daplmae  he  had  a  very  narrow  escape 
escape.  ^j.^^   g^    murderous    plot   contrived    by   his 

brother,  who  had  remained  behind  as  regent.  The 
royal  residence  was  set  on  fire,  and  the  royal  family 
quickly  surrounded  by  a  ring  of  flame.  Eameses 
hurriedly  consulted  his  wife,  and  on  her  advice  threw  two 
of  their  six  sons  across  the  flames,  and  over  this  impro- 
vised bridge  made  good  his  escape  with  her  and  the 
remaining  four.  He  afterwards  wreaked  his  revenge  on 
his  traitorous  brother,  and  put  up  colossal  statues  of 
himself,  the  queen,  and  those  four  sons,  to  commemo- 
rate their  narrow  escape. 

In  all  the  great  public  works  which  he  carried  out  he 
boasted  that  he  had  employed  only  foreign  captives  and 
that  no  Egyptain  had  been  made  to  share 
the  toil.  On  his  royal  progresses,  his  state 
chariot   was   drawn   by  vassal    kings    harnessed  four 

*  Herod,  ii.  102-110. 


Foreigners. 


A  NEW  NATION 


107 


abreast,  who  had  to  perform  this  service  as  part  of  their 
yearly  homage. 

All  such  early  accounts  contain  many  inaccuracies 
and  exaggerations.  The  sculptures  which  Herodotus 
saw  in  Asia  Minor  w^ere  most  probably  not  Historical 
Egyptian  at  all  but  Hittite,  and  the  whole  ^asis. 
story  of  Sesostris'  world-conquering  expeditions  to 
Bactria  and  India,  which  occurs  in  later  writers,  was 
probably  highly  coloured  by  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
Egyptian  annalists  to  make  their  national  hero  appear 
the  equal  or  even  the  superior  of  Alexander.  But  there 
is  a  sufficient  foundation  of  sound  historical  fact. 

Eameses  II.  must  remain  a  romantic  and  attrac- 
tive figure,  and  the  interest  attaching  to  his  reign  is 
heightened  by  its  connexion  with  the  Biblical  Biblical 
history  of  the  oppression  of  the  Hebrews  and  i^istory. 
their    escape    from    Egypt.      The   same    consideration 
applies  to   his   son   and   successor,  'Merenptah,   under 
whose  weaker  rule  Egypt  experienced  foreign  Decline 
invasion  and  domestic  trouble.    A  confederacy  under 

e  nr    t'L  j.*i         CI      J'*  T*u  Mcrenptah. 

of  Mediterranean  tribes,  Sardinians,  Libyans, 
Sicilians,  Lycians,  Tyrrhenians  and  Achaeans  raided  the 
western  portion  of  the  Delta  and  were  with  difficulty 
repalled.     The  empire  of  Thothmcs  and  Eameses  was 
entering  on  its  downward  path. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  Joseph  and  the  rest  of 
Jacob's  family  came  to  Egypt  during  the  Hyksos 
domination,  and  being  Semites  were  looked  The 
on  with  favour  by  these  Semitic  rulers.  But  ^<>^^8- 
their  position  suffered  a  rude  shock.  **  Now  there 
arose  a  new  king  over  Egypt,  which  knew  not 
Joseph,"  is  the  laconic  statement  of  the  Book  of 
Exodus  (Ex.  i.  8).  It  refers  doubtless  to  the  accession 
of  the  Nineteenth  Dynasty,  perhaps  more  particu- 
larly to  that  of  Eameses  II.     The  Eighteenth  Dynasty, 


108 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


A  NEW  NATION 


109 


founded  by  Ahines,  bad  indeed  expelled  tbe  Hyksos,  but 
it  had  tolerated  tbeir  proteges,  the  Hebrews,  perhaps 
partly  out  of  grateful  remembrance  of  noble  service 
rendered  by  their  compatriot  Joseph,  the  great  viceroy 
who  had  staved  off  famine.  But  the  Eighteenth 
Dynasty  had  left  the  scene  under  a  cloud,  and  the 
Nineteenth  which  supplanted  it  doubtless  attributed  its 
inglorious  end  partly, to  its  sentimentality  and  weak 
policy  towards  the  foreigners.  They  were  the  "  Jingoes  " 
of  ancient  Egypt. 

^  As  Rameses  would  have  no  half-measures  in  deaHng 
with  external  foes,  so  tbe  watchword  of  "  Thorough  " 
Eameses        characterized  his  internal  reforms.     And  one 
Hebrews        ^!  ^^^^  ^^^^^^^  ^^^  ^^*  himself  was  the  eHmina- 
tion  of  the  alien.   His  own  statement  inscribed 
on  his  monuments  that  no  native  Egyptian  had  groaned 
under  a  taskmaster  in  the  erection  oi  his  mighty  works 
agrees  well  with  the  Biblical  account  of  the  oppression 
of  the  Hebrews.     They  were  set  to  make  bricks  under 
increasingly  hard  conditions  and  to  raise  buildings  for 
the  king,  and  in  this  way  built  the  store-cities  of  l^tthom 
and  llameses.     But  Rameses  did  not  merely  wish  to  use 
the  Hebrews  as  slaves  and  make  their  life  a  burden  out 
of  mere   despotic   caprice  and  inhumanity.      He   was 
afraid  of  them.     They  had  prospered  and  multiplied 
tremendously  and  had  become  an  element  in  the  nation 
to  be  reckoned  with,  and  there  was  a  danger  that  being 
foreigners  from  Asia  they  might  some  day  facilitate  tbe 
entry  into  Egypt  of  an  invader  from  the  same  quarter 
and  even  join  tbeir  considerable  forces  with  his.     So  the 
oppression  was   deliberate   and  systematic  and  aimed 
at  extermination.     But  the  device  failed.     Then   the 
oppressor  had  recourse  to  murder,  the   organized   de- 
struction of  all  the   male  Hebrew  children   at   birth. 
But  the  agents  were  not  so  ruthless  as  the  commands 


laid    upon    them,    and    still    the   persecuted   Hebrews 
multiplied. 

And   then,   in    the   hour   of  need,  the   great  hero 
appeared  upon  the  scene.     The  story  of  Moses  is  too 
familiar  to  require  repetition.  His  life,  in  word 
and  deed,  is  contained  in  the  books  of  Exodus,     ^°^^^' 
Leviticus,  Numbers  and  Deuteronomy,  in  fuller  detail 
perhaps  tban  the  Hfe  of  any  other  of  the  mighty  men 
of  old,  and  must  be  read  there  to  be  understood  and 
admired.     The  child  who  was  saved  from  murder  by 
being  concealed,  when  no  more  than  three  months  old, 
in  a  cradle  of  bulrushes  and  mud  among  the  reeds  of  a 
deep  and  broad  and  crocodile-infested  river,  and  was 
rescued    from    this   perilous    situation   by   the    King's 
daughter  and  brought  up  by  her  in  the  royal  pahice 
as  her  own  son  "  in  all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians," 
grew  up  into  the  greatest  man  in  the  history  of  a  nation 
rich  in  great  men,  and  one  of  the  greatest  men  of  all 
nations  and  all  ages.     Whether  as  organizer,  or  military 
leader,  or  judge  or  legislator,  this  extraordinary  genius 
compels    unqualified     admiration.      But    perhaps    the 
dominant   quality   in   his    character   was   his   patriotic 
devotion  and  forgetfulness  of  self.   He  had  every  induce- 
ment to  remain  where   he  was  and   let   things  drift. 
Brought  up  as  an  Egyptian  and  as  a  royal  prince,  he 
had  the  world  at  his  feet.     The  highest  career  was  open 
to  him.     Riches  and  honour  lay  within  easy  grasp.     He 
would  scarcely  need  to  stretch  out  his  hand  to  them; 
they  would  drop  into  it  as  he  lay  in  magnificent  and 
luxurious  indolence.     And  then  perhaps  ^some  scholar 
deciphering  hieroglyphs   might   have  come  across  the 
name  of  an  honoured  grandee  wdth  grandiloquent  titles, 
and  given  them  a  passing  smile,  no  more. 

But   Moses   was   made  of  other   stuff.     When  the 
"  choice  of  Heracles "  came  to  his  masculine  soul,  he 


110 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


A  NEW  NATION 


111 


took  the  steep  and  stony  path.  Nothing  would  have 
been  easier  for  liim  than  to  disown  the  oppressed  race 
and  enjoy  life  with  the  oppressors.  He  chose  rather  to 
avow  himself  a  Hebrew,  to  take  the  side  of  the  perse- 
cuted against  the  persecutor,  and  to  fly  for  his  life  to 
the  desert.  Returning  thence  after  many  years  of 
solitude  and  meditation  away  from  the  artificial  life  of 
the  court,  mature  and  resolute,  he  stood  up  as  the 
champion  of  his  people  and  defied  Pharaoh  to  his  face ; 
and  finally,  after  a  tragic  trial  of  strength  between 
oppressor  and  deliverer,  led  out  his  countrymen  from 
the  "house  of  bondage  "  with  a  high  hand  and  triumi3hed 
signally  over  the  army  launched  by  the  king  in  hot 
pursuit. 

Sound  the  loud  timbrel  o'er  Egypt's  dark  sea  I 
Jehovah  has  triumphed — his  people  are  free. 
Sing— for  the  pride  of  the  tyrant  is  broken, 

His  chariots,  his  horsemen,  all  splendid  and  brave- 
How  vain  was  their  boast,  for  the  Lord  hath  but  spoken, 

And  chariots  and  horsemen  are  sunk  in  the  wave, 
Sound  the  loud  timbrel  o'er  Egj-pt's  dark  sea ; 
Jehovah  has  triumphed — his  people  are  free  ! 

— T.  Moore. 

It  seems  that  somewhere  in  the  interval  since  Moses* 
birth,  Rameses  had  gone  the  way  of  all  the  world,  and 

Date  of  the  ^^^^  *^^  throne  to  his  son  Merenptah.  There 
Exodus :  is  no  record  of  the  Hebrew  exodus  under 
about  1220  jyjoggg  jjj  ^-ijjg  j.gjg^ .  ^^^  g^g  ^^^  tyrannical  per- 
secution of  the  Israelites  fits  in  with  what  we 
know  from  other  sources  of  the  reign  of  Rameses,  so 
Merenptah  is  the  type  of  king  in  whose  disordered  reign 
the  rebellion  of  Moses  might  very  naturally  occur,  and 
who  would  not  care  to  make  any  allusion  to  his 
discomfiture. 

Moses  showed  his  good  strategy  and  good  sense  in 
avoiding  the  direct  route  from  the  Delta  along  the 


sea-coast  to  Palestine,  this  being  guarded  by  a  string  of 
forts,  and  turning  south,  leading  his  undisciplined  rabble 
of  followers  by  a  roundabout  way  along  the  east  ^^^^^ 
coast  of  the  Gulf  of  Suez.     He  had  planned  of  the 
for  them  a  journey  away  from  the  beaten    ^&^*^^®^- 
track  during  which  he  might,  by  a  long  apprenticeship, 
inure  them  to  hardship,  and  out  of  a  down-trodden  and 
chaotic  collection  of  poor-spirited  slaves  forge  a  united 
and   manly   nation,   obedient   to   law    and   fearless   in 
battle.     He  met  and  overcame  various  hill-tribes,  and 
when  out  of  reach  of  pursuit  in  a  secure  encampment, 
he  promulgated  that  remarkable  ^ode  of  laws  which  was 
to  be  the  base  and  starting-point  of  the  laws  civil  and 
religious  of  a  vigorous  nation,  and  of  the  greater  part  of 
the  whole  civilized  world. 

Perhaps  we  should  ascribe  to  the  great  lawgiver 
only  those  laws  contained  in  Exodus  xx.-xxiii.  That  is 
a  point  for  the  Biblical  critic.  Much  has  Moses  as 
been  said  about  the  resemblances  between  lawgiver, 
the  laws  of  Moses  and  those  of  Hammurabi,  King  of 
Babylon,  the  contemporary  of  Abraham,  and  of  the 
presumed  indebtedness  of  the  later  to  the  earlier 
legislator.  No  doubt  Moses  was  well  acquainted  with 
the  old  Babylonian  code.  It  had  been  known  for  a 
thousand  years,  and  through  the  spread  of  Babylonian 
influence  had  been  the  current  law  of  Syria  and  Palestine 
at  the  very  doors  of  Egypt  for  many  centuries.  Indeed, 
it  continued  in  force  as  the  law  of  Assyrian  and  Baby- 
lonian governments  for  many  centuries  after  Moses' 
death.  Moses,  therefore,  with  the  education  of  a  prince 
in  **all  the  wisdom  of  the  Egyptians,"  cannot  have 
failed  to  have  studied  the  laws  of  the  greatest  con- 
temporary power,  and  it  would  be  curious  if  he  had 
gathered  no  hint  from  so  excellent  a  collection  of  statutes. 
The  resemblances  in  fact  are  many  and  striking. 


i 


112 


THE  xVNCIENT  WORLD 


A  NEW  NATION 


Difference 
between 
Moses  and 
Hammurabi. 


But  the  differences  are   equally  remarkable.     The 
new  laws   are    an   advance    on   the  old.     In  point  of 
religion,  there    is   no   comparison    possible. 
Nothing  in  Hammurabi's  code  comes  within 
measurable  distance  of  the  exalted  purity  and 
simple  grandeur  of  the  Decalogue.     In  moral 
and  social  matters  Moses'  precepts  are  distinguished  by 
an  undercurrent  of  mercy  which   is  absent°from   the 
more   ancient   code.     He  forbids  the    ill-treatment   of 
strangers,   and   allows  them   to    be    naturalized      He 
prohibits  usury  and  the  keeping  of  a  debtor's  coat   in 
pledge  after  sundown  ;  and  gleaning  in  harvested  fields 
IS  to  be  the  privilege  of  the  poor.     The  harvest  of  every 
seventh    year    is    likewise    devoted    to    the    indigent 
Cruelty  to  animals  is  punishable.     Runaway  slaves  are 
not  to  be  given  up.     Cities  of  refuge  are  provided  for 
involuntary  manslayers.      Besides,   Hammurabi   made 
no  sanitary  laws,  no  organized  law-courts  and  no  laws 
against    CDrruption,    magic,    and    false    weights,   such 
as  we  find  enacted  by  Moses.     The  comparison  of  the 
laws  IS  interesting,  but  in  judging  the  framers  of  them 
It  must  be  remembered  that  Moses  lived  a  thousand 
years  later  than  his  great  predecessor. 

The   land  of  Canaan,  which  was  the   goal   of  the 
Hebrews'   march,   had   for   a  long  time,   at  the  very 
Canaan.         J^f '*  *^^^^  centuries,  been  subject  to  Egypt, 
ihothmes   I.   had  conquered    as  far  as  the 
i.uphrates  in  the  sixteenth  century  b.c.  and  Thothmes 
HI.,  surnamed  the  Great,  had  carried  his  victorious  wars 
through  those  regions  more  than  a  dozen  times  fifty  years 
ater.     Under  the  over-mild  rule  of  Akhnaton  (Amen- 
hotep  IV.),  this  dependency  revolted  successfully,  but  a 
generation  later  Seti  I.  reconquered  it  and  Rameses  II. 
tightened  his  hold  upon  it.     Lost  once  more  by  his  son 
Merenptah,  and  again  reconquered  by  Rameses  III    it 


113 


now  enjoyed  a  long  period,  two  and  a  half  centuries  of 
immunity  from  Egyptian  attacks  or  interference,  in  fact 
till  Shishak's  plundering  raid  into  Judaea  in  Rehoboam's 
reign.  It  was  probably  at  the  beginning  of  this  period, 
soon  after  the  re-conquest  by  Rameses  III.,  that  Joshua 
led  his  troops  into  their  new  home.* 

After  a  period  the  duration  of  which  is  not  certain, 
but  which  extended  over  many  years,  during  part  of 
which  time  they  had  their  headquarters  at  ^  , 
Kadesh-barnea,  the  Israelites  at  length  won  conqu^t  of 
their  way  to  Palestine,  approaching  it,  not  as  ^^^^an. 
might  have  been  supposed,  from  the  south,  but  from  the 
east.    After  conquering  the  country  east  of  Jordan  they 
crossed   the  river  opposite   Jericho  and  captured  this 
fortified  town,  which  was  the  key  to  Palestine,  com- 
manding the  principal  roads  into  the  interior.     Moses 
after  leading  the  people  to  the  threshold  of  their  destined 
home,  died  without  crossing  it  himself.     The  work  of 
invasion  and  conquest  was  left  to  his  successor,  Joshua 
who  gave  an  excellent  account  of  himself,  and  in  three 
main  campaigns  subdued  the  greater  part  of  the  country 
sufficiently  to  enable  the  Israelites  to  settle  in  it  and 
occupy    towns.      But    the    original    inhabitants     still 
remained   in    large    numbers.      The    snake   had  been 
scotched,  not   killed,  and  could  still  turn  and  use  his 
fangs  and  venom  to  good  purpose.     Hence  the  Book  of 
Judges,  a  great  national   epic,  in  prose  and  verse,  a 
kind  of  Ramayana  of  the  Hebrews.     In  it  we  become 
spectators  of  the  protracted  resistance  of  the  original 
occupants  of  Palestine  and  the  more  and  more  effec- 
tive  self-assertion  of  the  invaders  under  an  irregular 
series   of   unequally  gifted   but  enthusiastic  chieftains 
or   -  Judges."     Thus   there   are  unfolded  in  dramatic 


114 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


A  NEW  NATION 


115 


succession  the  more  or  less  marvellous  exploits  of  Ehud 
the  Benjamite,  the  women  Dehorah  and  Jael,  Gideon, 
Jephthah  and  last,  but  not  least  extraordinary, 
Samson. 

This  stormy  period,  during  which  the  country  was 
disorganized  and  ill-governed,  lasted  about  a  hundred 
Saul  and  and  fifty  years,  at  the  end  of  which  time  the 
David.  Israelites,  having  become  more  of  a  nation 

under  the  able  rule  of  Samuel,  adopted  a  monarchial 
form  of  government.  As  in  the  case  of  Rome  a  thousand 
years  later  and  of  many  another  nation,  a  period  of  war 
and  confusion  ended  in  the  sole  rule  of  the  inevitable 
one  strong  man.  Saul's  reign,  which  had  promised  well 
at  the  start,  closed  in  failure  and  defeat,  and  was  entirely 
eclipsed  by  that  of  his  rival  and  successor  David  (about 
1010-970  B.C.).  The  most  famous  of  all  the  Hebrew 
kings  had  a  remarkable  career.  He  had  been  taken 
while  still  a  mere  boy  from  the  work  of  watching  his 
father's  flocks  on  the  hillsides,  to  be  musician  and 
armour-bearer  to  King  Saul.  Winning  distinction  in 
the  field  against  the  nation's  enemies,  he  rose  high  in 
favour  and  became  the  King's  son-in-law.  But  being 
marked  out  by  the  king-maker  Samuel  to  occupy  his 
father-in-law's  throne,  he  was  persecuted  by  him  with 
relentless  fury,  and  lived  for  years  the  life  of  an  outlaw 
in  the  uplands  of  Judah.  Here  he  supported  himself 
and  a  small  band  of  followers  in  the  midst  of  perilous 
exploits  and  adventures  and  privation.  This  training 
he  turned  to  good  account,  and  when,  on  the  death  of 
Saul,  he  ascended  the  throne,  he  speedily  showed  that 
the  lessons  of  his  wild  life  had  not  been  wasted  upon 
him.  He  proved  himself  an  organizer  and  a  soldier  of 
high  capacity.  In  a  short  time  he  had  humbled  the 
hereditary  foe,  the  Philistines,  united  his  northern  and 
southern  provinces   by   wresting  Jerusalem   from  the 


enemy,  driven  back  the  Moabites,  Ammonites  and 
Edomites,  who  were  encroaching  on  the  east  and  south, 
and  securely  established  a  w^ell-organized  kingdom  with 
well-defined  and  well-defended  frontiers.  At  the  same 
time,  he  was  the  author  of  glowing  poetry,  perhaps  the 
noblest  in  the  whole  of  his  nation's  literature. 

His  son  Solomon,  who  followed  him  on  the  throne, 
though  not  so  great  a  soldier,  surpassed  his  father  in 
royal  magnificence.  He  enriched  and  beauti-  g^i^^^^jj 
fied  his  capital  with  a  gorgeous  temple  and 
lovely  palaces,  and  rivalled  and  even  surpassed  the  kings 
of  the  surrounding  states  in  the  wealth,  luxury  and 
splendour  of  his  court.  Like  his  father,  he  was  also  a 
gifted  author  ;  and  his  reputation  for  wisdom  spread  far 
and  wide.  Despite  his  personal  shortcomings,  he  knew 
how  to  choose  his  ministers,  and  he  kept  unimpaired  the 
territory  he  inherited  from  his  warrior  father. 

Thus  Israel  took  its  place  among  the  nations  of  the 
ancient  east.  A  glance  at  its  position  on  the  map,  at 
the  meeting-place  of  nations,  at  the  crossing  Israel's 
of  the  roads  from  Egypt  to  Babylonia,  and  P^a^e. 
from  Syria  to  Arabia,  gives  a  clear  hint  of  the  part  it 
was  destined  to  play  in  the  history  of  their  collisions 
and  alliances. 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE   TROJAN   WAR 

I  cannot  tell  what  crop  may  clothe  the  hills, 
The  merry  hills  Troy  whitened  long  ago — 

Belike  the  sheaves,  wherewith  the  reaper  fills 
His  yellow  wain,  no  whit  the  weaker  grow 

For  that  past  harvest-tide  of  wrong  and  woo ; 
Belike  the  tale,  wept  over  otherwhere. 
Of  those  old  days,  is  clean  forgotten  there. 

— W.  Morris,  "  Earthly  Paradise." 

The  Aryans  of  India  bad  had  their  wars  and  adventures 
inspiring  national  epics  of  immense  length.  The 
The  national  Israelites  during  two  centuries  conquering 
epic  of  and  settling  themselves  in  their  new  home 

Crreece 

had  furnished  materials  for  their  books  of 
'* Joshua"  and  ** Judges."  Meanwhile  the  West  was 
not  lagging  behind.  The  inhabitants  of  the  islands  and 
mainland  coasts  of  the  Aegean  Sea  were  men  of  hke 
passions  with  their  Eastern  cousins,  and,  no  less  than 
they,  had  their  alliances,  commercial  treaties,  jealousies, 
hates,  ambitions  and  wars.  It  was  an  affair  of  love 
and  wounded  honour  which  set  those  lands  ablaze  with 
a  ten-year  war,  which  furnished  a  theme  for  the  great 
national  epic  of  Greece,  the  oldest  existing  document 
in  the  Greek  language. 

Troy,  the  Trojan  War,  Hector,  Achilles,  the  Wooden 
Horse,  are  all  household  words,  spread  far  more  widely 
than  any  knowledge  of  Greek  or  of  Greek  history.  The 
story,  or  the  greater  portion  of  it,  is  told  us  in  the 

116 


THE   TROJAN  WAR 


117 


''Iliad."     Once  upon  a  time,  long,  long  ago,  long  before 
the  dawn  of  history  or  the  birth  of  iconoclastic  critics, 
Teucer,   a    colonist    from    Crete    (there   are  ^ariy 
various  versions  of  the  tale)  settled  in  the  (traditional) 
north-west  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  near  the  Troy 7  ^^ 
Hellespont,  and  built  himself  a  town.     Dar-  Teucer,Dar- 
danus  came  over  from  Samothrace  on  a  raft  ^*^'^^'  ^''®*' 
or  a  bladder,  became  Teucer's  son-in-law,  and  on  his 
death  took  over  the  rule  of  the  new  town,  and,  with 
a  modesty  not   uncommon   in   those    days,   called  it 
Dardania.      His   grandson  Tros   rechristened  the  city 
Troy,  and  its  inhabitants  Trojans. 

From  him  there  sprang  two  lines  of  princes,  the 
elder  supplying  Troy  with  its   kings,  Ilus,  Laomedon 
and  Priam,  each  renowned  in  his  own  way,  ^^g 
while  the  younger  branch  included  Aeneas,  Laomedon, 
and  so  in  after-ages  supplied  romance  with     "*°^' 
the  tale  of  the  wicked  uncle  and  the  infant  twins  saved 
from  a  river  and  suckled  under  a  fig-tree  by  a  com- 
passionate she-wolf.      Ilus  followed  the  family  habit, 
built  his  own  town,  which  he  named  Ilios,  and  amalga- 
mated it  with  Dardania,  or  Troy.     Laomedon  is  chiefly 
famous  for  his  repudiation  of  a  considerable  debt  to  the 
builders  of  the  town  walls,  and  his  well-deserved  punish- 
ment, while  Priam  distinguished  himself  by  being  the 
father  of  fifty  sons  and  twelve  daughters,  and  is  most 
famous  as  the  ill-fated  last  king  of  Troy. 

Two  of  his  sons  became  famous.  Hector  for  his 
bravery,  sense  of  honour  and  domestic  virtue,  Paris  for 
the  opposites  of  all  these  qualities.  Paris, 
handsome,  indolent,  effeminate,  was  the  spoilt 
child  of  the  family,  and  grew  up,  as  spoilt  children  will, 
selfish,  heartless  and  uncontrolled.  Being  hospitably 
entertained  by  Menelaus,  king  of  Sparta,  at  whose 
palace  he  was  paying  a  visit,  he  showed  his  gratitude 


118 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


by  making  love  to  his  host's  wife,  Helen,  and  in  her 
lord's  absence  absconding  with  her  over  the  sea  to  Troy. 
Even  in  Aegean  society  and  Aegean  times  there 
was  a  limit  to  a  host's  generosity.  The  outrage  roused 
the  fury  of  Menelaus,  and  a  wave  of  indigna- 
war  r*  °  tion  swept  over  Greece  against  the  shameless 
Agamemnon  foreigner.  Agamemnon,  **  king  of  men  "par 
excellence,  ruler  of  Mycenae  the  golden,  and 
brother  of  the  injured  husband,  summoned  his  faithful 
vassals  to  his  standard,  and  a  goodly  array  of  chieftains 
and  men  and  ships  gathered  at  Aulib  in  Boeotia  and 
crossed  the  Aegean  waves,  to  demand  satisfaction  from 
the  king  and  people  of  Troy  for  the  offence  of  their 
good-for-nothing  prince,  and  to  bring  home  the  erring 
wife.  But  the  combined  might  of  the  western  main- 
land states  could  not  humble  the  obstinate  city,  which 
was  strongly  fortified  and  courageously  defended.  The 
Boul  of  the  defence  was  Hector.  For  ten  long,  weary 
years  the  siege  dragged  on,  neither  side  gaining  the 
advantage.  At  last,  in  the  tenth  year,  events  began  to 
move  fast,  and  it  is  at  this  point  that  the  "  Iliad  "  opens 
and  plunges  in  medias  res, 

Agamemnon,  king  of  men,  has  taken  the  daughter 
of  Chryses,  the  priest  of  Apollo,  and  Apollo  in  revenge 
sends  a  plague  into  the  Greek  camp.  There- 
••  lUad"  ^  upon  the  king  reluctantly  restores  the  priest's 
wrath  of  daughter,  but  compensates  himself  by  de- 
priving Achilles  of  his  fair  captive,  Bryseis.* 
Achilles'  resentment  knows  no  bounds.  In  his  fury  he 
swears  that  he  will  fight  for  Agamemnon  no  more,  and 
retires  to  his  tent  ordering  his  Myrmidons  to  do  the 
same.  Above,  on  Olympus,  his  mother  Thetis  obtains 
from  Zeus  a  promise  that  the  Greeks  will  rue  the  day 
when  Agamemnon  wronged  her  son.    Agamemnon,  in 

♦  See  later,  Chapter  XVI.,  p.  276. 


THE  TROJAN  WAR 


119 


consequence  of  a  dream,  marshals  his  host  for  battle, 
despite  the  opposition  of  the  majority  of  his  chiefs. 

But   a  truce  is   made  on  the  request  of  Paris  to 
allow  of  a  single  combat  between  him  and  the  host  he 
has    wronged,    Menelaus.     In   this   Paris  is 
worsted,  but  is  saved  from  destruction  by  the  tween  Paris 
timely  interference  of  Aphrodite,  the  goddess  J°^  ^qt^q- 
who  by  his  famous  corrupt  judgment  had 
won  the  prize  of  beauty  and  had  in  return  helped  him  to 
win  Helen.    The  truce  is  broken  and  the  armies  once 
more  join  battle,  in  which  Diomede,  by  the   help  of 
Athene,  performs  great  deeds  of  valour  and  bloodshed. 
Meanwhile  Hector  bids  farewell  to  his  wife  and  infant 
son — one  of  the  most  touching  scenes  in  the  whole  of 
this  glorious  poem. 

"  How  would  the  sons  of  Troy,  in  arms  renowned,* 

And  Troy's  proud  dames,  whose  garments  sweep  the  ground, 

Attaint  the  lustre  of  my  former  name, 

Should  Hector  basely  quit  the  field  of  fame  ? 

My  early  youth  was  bred  to  martial  pains. 

My  soul  impels  me  to  the  embattled  plains. 

Let  me  be  foremost  to  defend  the  throne, 

And  guard  my  father's  glories,  and  my  own  1 

Yet  come  it  will,  the  day  decreed  by  fates, 

(How  my  heart  trembles,  while  my  tongue  relates  I) 

The  day  when  thou,  imperial  Troy,  must  bend, 

And  see  thy  warriors  fall,  thy  glories  end. 

And  yet  no  dire  presage  so  wounds  my  mind, 

My  mother's  death,  the  ruin  of  my  kind, 

Not  Priam's  hoary  hairs  defiled  with  gore, 

Not  all  my  brothers  gasping  on  the  shore, 

As  thine,  Andromache  I     Thy  griefs  I  dread : 

I  see  thee  trembling,  weeping,  captive  led  I 

In  Argive  looms  our  battles  to  design, 

And  woes,  of  which  so  large  a  part  was  thine. 

To  bear  the  victor's  hard  commands,  or  bring 

The  weight  of  waters  from  Hyperia's  spring. 

♦  Homer,  "Iliad,"  vi.  440,  Pope's  translation. 


o- 


I 


120  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

There  while  you  groan  beneath  the  load  of  life, 
They  cry,  *  Behold  the  mighty  Hector's  wife  1 ' 
Some  haughty  Greek,  who  lives  thy  tears  to  see, 
Embitters  all  thy  woes,  by  naming  mo. 
The  thoughts  of  glory  past  and  present  shame 
A  thousand  griefs  shall  waken  at  the  name  I 
May  I  lie  cold  before  that  dreadful  day 
Pressed  with  a  load  of  monumental  clay  I 
Thy  Hector,  wrapt  in  everlasting  sleep, 
Shall  neither  hear  thee  sigh  nor  see  thee  weep." 
Thus  having  spoke,  the  illustrious  chief  of  Troy 
Stretched  his  fond  arms  to  clasp  the  lovely  boy. 
The  babe  clung  crying  to  his  nurse's  breast, 
Scared  at  the  dazzling  helm  and  nodding  crest. 
"With  secret  pleasure  each  fond  parent  smiled, 
And  Hector  hasted  to  relieve  his  child. 
The  glittering  terrors  from  his  brows  unbound, 
And  placed  the  beaming  helmet  on  the  ground ; 
Then  kissed  the  child,  and,  lifting  high  in  air, 
Thus  to  the  gods  preferred  a  father's  prayer  : 
"  O  Thou  whose  glory  fills  the  ethereal  throne, 
And  all  ye  deathless  powers,  protect  my  son  1 
Grant  him,  like  me,  to  purchase  just  renown, 
To  guard  the  Trojans,  to  defend  the  crown, 
Against  his  country's  foes  the  war  to  wage, 
And  rise  the  Hector  of  the  future  age  1 
So  when  triumphant  from  successful  toils 
Of  heroes  slain  he  bears  the  reeking  spoils. 
Whole  hosts  mav  hail  him  with  deserved  acclaim. 
And  say,  •  This  chief  transcends  his  father's  fame ' ; 
While  pleased  amidst  the  general  shouts  of  Troy, 
His  mother's  conscious  heart  o'ertlows  with  joy." 
He  spoke,  and  fondly  gazing  on  her  charms, 
Restored  the  pleasing  burden  to  her  arms  ; 
Soft  on  her  fragrant  breast  the  babe  she  laid, 
Hushed  to  repose,  and  with  a  smile  surveyed. 
The  troubled  pleasure  soon  chastised  by  fear, 
She  mingled  with  a  smile  a  tender  tear. 
The  toftened  chief  with  kind  compassion  viewed, 
And  dried  the  falling  drops  and  thus  pursued  : 
•'  Andromache  I  my  soul's  far  better  part, 
Why  with  untimely  sorrows  heaves  thy  heart  ? 
No  hostile  hand  can  antedate  my  doom. 
Till  fate  condemns  me  to  the  silent  tomb. 


THE   TKOJAN  WAR  121 

Fixed  is  the  term  to  all  the  race  of  earth. 
And  such  the  hard  condition  of  our  birth : 
No  force  can  then  resist,  no  flight  can  save. 
All  sink  alike,  the  fearful  and  the  brave. 
No  more— but  hasten  to  thy  tasks  at  home, 
There  guide  the  spindle  and  direct  the  loom. 
Mo  glory  summons  to  the  martial  scene. 
The  field  of  combat  is  the  sphere  for  men. 
Where  heroes  war,  the  foremost  place  I  claim. 
The  first  in  danger,  as  the  first  in  fame." 
Thus  having  said,  the  glorious  chief  resumes 
His  towery  helmet,  black  with  shading  plumes. 
His  princess  parts  with  a  prophetic  sigh. 
Unwilling  parts,  and  oft  reverts  her  eye 
That  streamed  at  every  look  ;  then,  moving  slow, 
Sought  her  own  palace,  and  indulged  her  woe. 

Hector  fights  Ajax,  but  the  dramatic  duel,  the  climax 
of  the  poem,  is  not  yet.  The  Greeks  build  a  wall  to 
protect  their  ships  and  act  on  the  defensive.  Achillas 
From  this  point  the  Trojans,  partly  through  ^^^^^  ^^°°^- 
the  unfair  favouritism  of  Zeus,  who  has  ordered  the 
gods  to  abstain  from  helping  either  side  and  then 
assists  the  besieged,  begin  to  have  a  decided  advantage. 
Hector,  flushed  with  success,  and  anxious  to  press  the 
attack  home,  bivouacs  with  his  Trojans  on  the  field  of 
battle.  Agamemnon  is  alarmed,  and  sends  an  embassy 
consisting  of  Ajax,  Phoenix,  and  the  wily  and  persuasive 
Odysseus  to  oifer  to  restore  Bryseis  and  induce  Achilles 
to  fargive  and  forget,  and  return  to  the  scene  of  fight- 
ing. But  Achilles  contemptuously  rejects  their  over- 
tures, and  so  the  Greek  chieftains  are  thrown  back  on 
their  own  resources.  Odysseus,  the  cunning,  and 
Diomede,  the  impetuous,  kill  the  Trojan  spy  Dolon  and 
the  ally  of  Troy,  the  Thracian  Rhesus,  on  the  very  night 
of  his  arrival  in  the  camp.  But  it  is  all  in  vain. 
Many  of  the  Greek  leaders  are  wounded,  and  Hector 
and  the  Trojans  even  burst  through  the  wall  by  the 
ships.     The  Greeks  are  saved  from  their  plight  by  Hera, 


122 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


the  Queen  of  the  gods,  who  tells  Zeus  to  sleep,  while 
Poseidon  seizes  the  opportunity  to  help  the  Greeks,  and 
Hector  is  wounded.  The  king  of  gods  and  men,  how- 
ever, wakes  up  in  the  nick  of  time  and  puts  new  strength 
into  Hector,  and  the  result  is  a  desperate  encounter 
close  to  the  ships,  which  are  stoutly  defended  by  Ajax. 
And  thus  from  day  to  day  the  struggle  continues,  now 
one  side,  now  the  other  having  the  advantage,  according 
to  the  inconsistent  favour  and  help  of  the  gods  of 
Olympus. 

But  events  are  moving  to  a  climax.  Patroclus,  the 
young  friend  of  Achilles,  seeing  how  the  war  goes,  with 
Hector  kills  niany  entreaties  persuades  Achilles  to  lend 
A*hif^^^'  ^^^  ^^^  armour,  and  goes  into  the  fighting 
vows  line.      The   personation  is   successful.     The 

revenge.  Greeks  are  fired  with  new  hope.  The  Trojans, 
believing  that  the  redoubtable  hero  himself  has  re- 
turned, are  frightened  and  driven  back  from  the  ships. 
But  Hector,  undaunted  as  ever,  stands  and  gives  battle 
to  the  champion,  and  slays  him.  His  fall  is  the  signal 
for  a  determined  contest  between  Greeks  and  Trojans 
for  the  possession  of  the  dead.  But  Hector  makes 
good  his  claim,  and  strips  the  corpse  of  its  renowned 
panoply.  From  that  moment  all  is  changed.  Achilles, 
hearing  of  the  death  of  his  friend,  vows  revenge. 
Before  an  assembly  of  the  Greeks  he  is  reconciled  to 
Agamemnon;  his  divine  mother,  Thetis,  brings  him 
a  new  and  magnificent  suit  of  armour  made  at  her 
request  by  the  god  Hephaestus ;  and  thus  accoutred 
and  breathing  vengeance,  the  resplendent  and  terrible 
warrior  strides  forth  to  battle. 

The  silver  cuishes  first  his  thighs  infold ;  ♦ 
Then  o'er  his  breast  was  braced  the  hollow  gold ; 


*  "  Iliad,"  xix.  369  (Pope). 


THE  TEOJAN  WAR 


123 


The  brazen  sword  a  various  baldric  tied, 
That,  starred  with  gems,  hung  glittering  at  his  side ; 
And,  like  the  moon,  the  broad  refulgent  shield  * 
Blazed  with  long  rays,  and  gleamed  athwart  the  field. 

So  to  night-wandering  sailors,  pale  with  fears, 
Wide  o'er  the  watery  waste,  a  light  appears, 
Which  on  the  far-seen  mountain  blazing  high. 
Streams  from  some  lonely  watch-tower  to  the  sky : 
With  mournful  eyes  they  gaze  and  gaze  again  ; 
Loud  howls  the  storm  and  drives  them  o'er  the  main. 

Next,  his  high  head  the  helmet  graced  ;  behind 
The  sweepy  crest  hung  floating  in  the  wind  : 
Like  the  red  star,  that  from  his  flaming  hair 
Shakes  down  diseases,  pestilence,  and  war  ; 
So  streamed  the  golden  honours  from  his  head. 
Trembled  the  sparkling  plumes,  and  the  loose  glories  shed. 
The  chief  beholds  himself  with  wondering  eyes  ; 
His  arms  he  poises,  and  his  motions  tries ; 
Buoyed  by  some  inward  force  he  seems  to  swim, 
And  feels  a  pinion  lifting  every  limb. 
And  now  he  shakes  his  great  paternal  spear. 
Ponderous  and  huge,  which  not  a  Greek  could  rear, 
From  Pelion's  cloudy  top  an  ash  entire 
Old  Chiron  felled  and  shaped  it  for  his  sire  ; 
A  spear  which  stern  Achilles  only  wields. 
The  death  of  heroes  and  the  dread  of  fields. 

Antomedon  and  Alcimus  prepare 
The  immortal  coursers  and  the  radiant  car  ; 
(The  silver  traces  sweeping  at  their  side) 
Their  fiery  mouths  resplendent  bridles  tied ; 
The  ivory-studded  reins,  returned  behind. 
Waved  o'er  their  backs,  and  to  the  chariot  joined. 
The  charioteer  then  whirled  the  lash  around. 
And  swift  ascended  at  one  active  bound. 
All  bright  in  heavenly  arms,  above  his  squire, 
Achilles  mounts  and  sets  the  field  on  fire  ; 
Not  brighter  Phoebus  in  the  ethereal  way 
Flames  from  his  chariot,  and  restores  the  day. 

Once  more  the  gods  descend  from  Olympus  to  the 
field,   and   several   duels  take  place,  and  heroes    are 


*  For  a  full  description  of  his  famous  shield,  too  long  to  quote  here, 
see  "  Iliad,"  xviii.  468-608. 


124 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


meets 
Hector. 


saved  from  death  by  divine  intervention.  But  the  cul- 
minating tragedy  can  be  delayed  no  longer.  Achilles, 
Achilles  having  chased  the  Trojans  from  the  field, 
is  seen  sweeping  over  the  plain  towards 
Troy.  Hector  has  seen  him,  and,  in  spite  of 
tearful  entreaties  from  the  walls,  faces  round  and 
calmly  waits  for  the  onset  of  his  terrific  enemy.  Here 
once  more  the  poet  rises  to  the  full  height  of  the 
occasion,  and  gives  us  of  his  best : — 

Resolved  he  stands,  and  with  a  fiery  glance  ♦ 
Expects  the  hero's  terrible  advance. 
So,  rolled  up  in  his  den,  the  swelling  snake 
Beholds  the  traveller  approach  the  brake  ; 
When  fed  with  noxious  herbs  his  turgid  veins 
Have  gathered  half  the  poisons  of  the  plains ; 
He  burns,  he  stiffens  with  collected  ire, 
And  his  red  eyeballs  glare  with  living  fire. 
Beneath  a  turret,  on  his  shield  reclined, 
He  stood  and  questioned  thus  his  mighty  mind  : 
"  Where  lies  my  way  ?     To  enter  in  the  wall  ? 
Honour  and  shame  the  ungenerous  thought  recall. 

• 
No  !— if  I  e'er  return,  return  I  must 
Glorious,  my  country's  terror  laid  in  dust : 
Or  if  I  perish,  let  her  see  me  fall 
In  field  at  least,  and  fighting  for  her  wall.*' 

Thus  pondering,  like  a  god  the  Greek  drew  nigh  ; 

His  dreadful  plumage  nodded  from  on  high ; 

The  Peliau  javelin,  in  his  better  hand. 

Shot  trembling  rays  that  glittered  o'er  the  land ; 

And  on  his  breast  the  beamy  splendour  shone, 

Like  Jove's  own  lightning  or  the  rising  sun. 

As  Hector  sees,  unusual  terrors  rise, 

Struck  by  some  god,  he  fears,  recedes,  and  flies. 

He  leaves  the  gates,  he  leaves  the  wall  behind  : 

Achilles  follows  like  the  winged  wind. 

Thus  at  the  panting  dove  a  falcon  flies 

(The  swiftest  racer  of  the  liquid  skies). 


THE   TROJAN  WAR  125 

Just  when  he  holds,  or  thinks  he  holds  his  prey, 
Obliquely  wheeling  through  the  aerial  way, 
With  open  beak  and  shrilling  cries  he  springs, 
And  aims  his  claws  and  shoots  upon  his  wings. 
••••••• 

The  ^  gods,  as  so  often  happens,  intervene,  and 
Hector  is  tricked  into  fighting  his  formidable  adversary. 
Heaven  decrees  that  he  must  die. 

sternly  they  met.     The  silence  Hector  broke  : 
His  dreadful  plumage  nodded  as  he  spoke  : 
**  Enough,  O  son  of  Peleus  !     Troy  has  viewed 
Her  walls  thrice  circled,  and  her  chief  pursued. 
But  now  some  god  within  me  bids  me  try 
Thine  or  my  fate  :  I  kill  thee,  or  I  die. 
Yet  on  the  verge  of  battle  let  us  stay, 
And  for  a  moment's  space  suspend  the  day ; 
Let  Heaven's  high  powers  be  called  to  arbitrate 
The  just  conditions  of  this  stern  debate  .  .  . 
To  them  I  swear  ;  if,  victor  in  the  strife, 
Jove  by  these  hands  shall  shed  thy  noble  life, 
No  vile  dishonour  shall  thy  corse  pursue  ; 
Stripped  of  its  arms  alone  (the  conqueror's  due) 
The  rest  to  Greece  uninjured  I'll  restore : 
Now  plight  thy  mutual  oath,  I  ask  no  more." 
♦•  Talk  not  of  oaths,"  the  dreadful  chief  replies. 
While  anger  flashed  from  his  disdainful  eyes, 
"  Detested  as  thou  art,  and  ought  to  be, 
Nor  oath  nor  pact  Achilles  plights  with  thee ; 
Such  pacts  as  lambs  and  rabid  wolves  combine, 
Such  leagues  as  men  and  furious  lions  join. 
To  such  I  call  the  gods  !  one  constant  state 
Of  lasting  rancour  and  eternal  hate  : 
No  thought  but  rage  and  never-ceasing  strife, 
Till  death  extinguish  rage,  and  thought  and  life.  . 


i> 


"Iliad,"  xxii.  128  and  foil.  (Pope). 


The  dramatic  fight  with  javelins  and  swords  ends  in 
Hector's  defeat — 

As  radiant  Hesper  shines  with  keener  light. 
Far-beaming  o'er  the  silver  host  of  night. 
When  all  the  starry  train  emblaze  the  sphere : 
So  shone  the  point  of  groat  Achilles'  spear. 


k 


126  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

In  his  right  hand  ho  waves  the  weapon  round, 
Eyes  the  whole  man,  and  meditates  the  wound ; 
But  the  rich  mail  Patroclus  lately  wore 
Securely  cased  the  warrior's  body  o'er. 
One  space  at  length  he  spies,  to  let  in  fate, 
Where  'twixt  the  nock  and  throat  the  jointed  plate 
Gave  entrance  ;  through  that  penetrable  part 
Furious  he  drove  the  well-directed  dart : 
Nor  pierced  the  windpipe  yet,  nor  took  the  power 
Of  speech,  imhappy !  from  thy  dying  hour. 
Prone  on  the  field  the  bleeding  warrior  lies, 
While,  thus  triumphing,  stern  Achilles  cries : 
*'  At  last  is  Hector  stretched  upon  the  plain, 
Who  feared  no  vengeance  for  Patroclus  slain  .  .  , 
Peaceful  he  sleeps,  with  all  our  rites  adorned, 
For  ever  honoured  and  for  over  mourned  : 
While,  cast  to  all  the  rage  of  hostile  power. 
Thee  birds  shall  mangle  and  the  dogs  devour." 
Then  Hector,  fainting  at  the  approach  of  death, 
"  By  thy  own  soul !  by  those  who  gave  thee  breath  ! 
By  all  the  sacred  prevalence  of  prayer ; 
Ah,  leave  me  not  for  Grecian  dogs  to  tear ! 
The  common  rites  of  sepulture  bestow, 
To  soothe  a  father's  and  a  mother's  woo  : 
Let  their  large  gifts  procure  an  urn  at  least, 
And  Hector's  ashes  in  his  countrv  rest." 
"  No,  wretch  accursed  !  "  relentless  he  replies 
(Flames,  as  he  spoke,  shot  flashing  from  his  eyes) : 
Not  those  who  gave  me  breath  should  bid  me  spare. 
Nor  all  the  sacred  prevalence  of  prayer, 
Could  I  myself  the  bloody  banquet  join  ! 
No — to  the  dogs  that  carcase  I  resign. 
Should  Troy,  to  bribe  me,  bring  forth  all  her  store, 
And  giving  thousands,  offer  thousands  more  ; 
Should  Dardan,  Priam,  and  his  weeping  dame. 
Drain  their  whole  realm,  to  buy  one  funeral  flame ; 
Their  Hector  on  the  pile  they  should  not  see, 
Nor  rob  the  vultures  of  one  limb  of  thee." 
Then  thus  the  chief  his  dying  accents  drew : 
**  Thy  rage,  implacable !  too  well  I  knew  : 
The  Furies  that  relentless  breast  have  steeled, 
And  cursed  thee  with  a  heart  that  cannot  yield. 
Yet  think,  a  day  will  come,  when  fate's  decree 
And  angry  gods  shall  wreak  this  wrong  on  thee ; 


THE   TROJAN  WAR  127 

Phoebus  and  Paris  shall  avenge  my  fate. 

And  stretch  thee  here  before  the  Scaean  gate." 

He  ceased.     The  Fates  suppressed  his  labouring  breath, 

And  his  eyes  stiffened  at  the  hand  of  death ; 

To  the  dark  realm  the  spirit  wings  its  way, 

(The  manly  body  left  a  load  of  clay) 

And  plaintive  glides  along  the  dreary  coast, 

A  naked,  wandering,  melancholy  ghost. 

There  was  no  more  to  be  done.  Black  night  had 
fallen  on  the  eyes  of  her  peerless  defender,  and  there 
was  no  new  dawn  for  Troy.  The  only  con-  xroy 
solation  vouchsafed  to  broken-hearted  Priam  doomed, 
was  that  the  slayer  of  his  son  relented  at  his  tears  and 
prayers,  and  gave  him  back  the  body  for  burial.  But  the 
tomb  which  received  the  ashes  of  Hector  closed  finally 
on  the  last  hopes  of  the  Trojans. 

There  Homer's  immortal  tale  fittingly  closes.     But 
from  other  sources  we  know  the  last  act  of  the  great 
tragedy.     Paris,  stung  at  last  by  the  sacrifice 
of  his  noble  brother,  screwed  up  his  courage  logue^^' 
and  ventured  far  enough  to  be  able  to  use  his  ^®*^.^  o^ 
skill  as  an  archer,  and,  while  himself  safely 
out  of  reach  of  his  formidable  quarry,  shot  Achilles  in 
his  one  vulnerable  spot  and  so  ended  his  career.     The 
Greeks  deprived  in  their  turn  of  their  foremost  fighter, 
and  despairing  of  taking  Troy  by  force  of  arms,  now 
resorted  to  cunning.     On  the  advice  of  Odysseus,  the 
man  of  many  wiles,  they  constructed  an  enormous  hollow 
horse   of  wood,   filled  it   with  a  number   of  The  wooden 
picked  men  who  volunteered  for  this  forlorn  ^°^^^* 
hope,  and  left  it  on  the  plain,  all  the  rest  of  the  fleet 
and  army  retiring  a  little  distance  behind  the  Island  of 
Tenedos,  out  of  sight  of  the  doomed  city.     The  super- 
stitious  and  infatuated  Trojans,  persuaded  that  their 
implacable  foes  had  sailed  away  at  last  and  believing 
the  story  of  a  captive,  who  had  allowed  himself  to  fall 


128 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


into  their  bands  for  this  very  purpose,  that  the  gigantic 
wooden  horse  was  a  peace-offering  to  an  angry  goddess 
and  was  purposely  made  of  that  huge  size  to  prevent  its 
removal  within  the  city  walls,  determined,  in  spite  of 
warnings,  to  set  to  work  to  drag  the  monster  into  their 
stronghold.  Young  and  old,  rich  and  poor,  lent  their 
hands  for  the  work,  and  the  wooden  horse  with  its 
unsuspected  and  deadly  load  entered  those  once  im- 
pregnable walls  to  the  accompaniment  of  music  and 
lusty  cheers.  That  night,  their  strenuous  toil  ended, 
chiefs  and  people  gave  themselves  up  to  carousing. 
That  night  the  ill-starred  city  fell.  In  the  twilight  the 
indefatigable  besiegers,  fondly  believed  to  be  tossing  on 
the  blue  Aegean,  returned  from  their  hiding-place  and 
crept  up  to  the  walls.  At  dead  of  night,  when  all  the 
revellers  were  locked  in  the  arms  of  a  leaden  sleep,  the 
desperadoes  in  the  fatal  statue  stole  out  of  their  lair  and 
opened  the  gates.  The  rest  was  pillage  and  massacre, 
and  the  flames  devoured  what  the  sword  had  spared. 

'Twas  thus  a  craven  trick  and  perjured  arts, 
Feigned  tears  and  lies,  subdued  the  Trojan's  hearts, 
Where  fiery  Diomed  and  Larissa's  lord, 
Implacable  Achilles,  vainly  warred. 
And  Agamemnon's  squadrons,  thousand-sailed, 
And  ten  long  years  of  weary  siege  had  failed.* 

It  would  be  impossible  to  follow  all  the  several  heroes 
of  this  world-famous  siege  in  their  subsequent  adven- 
The  sequel :  tures.  Agamemnon,  king  of  men,  returning 
no^n.^Aj^i,  ^op®  after  ten  years'  absence,  with  Cassandra"^ 
Paris.  Priam's   daughter,  among  his   share  of  the 

war-spoil,  was  treacherously  murdered  in  his  palace  by 
his  wife  Clytaemnestra  and  her  lover  Aegisthus,  who 
had  supplanted  the  king  in  his  absence.  Cassandra 
shared  his  fate.     But  a  family  already  renowned  for  the 

*  Verg.,  "Aencid,"  IT.  195. 


THE   TROJAN   WAR 


129 


number  and  grimness  of  its  tragedies,  had  not  yet 
drained  the  cup  to  the  dregs.  Orestes,  the  great  king's 
son,  on  arriving  at  man's  estate,  by  a  trick  and  the  help 
of  his  sister,  entrapped  and  slew  his  mother,  to  avenge 
his  father.  Ajax  had  gone  mad  and  committed  suicide 
before  the  end  of  the  siege,  and  Teucer  his  brother 
was  banished  by  his  father  Telamon  from  Salamis  for 
coming  home  without  him.  Paris  ends  his  coward 
life  shot  by  Philoctetes  with  one  of  Heracles's  poisoned 
arrows.  ^^.^^ 

But  of  all  the  actors  in  the  great  drama  the  poet 
singles  out  Odysseus  and  his  hundred  and  one  mar- 
vellous adventures  as  the  theme  of  another  -,, 

The 
poem  rivalling  the  '*  Iliad*'  in  length  and  in-  ''Odyssey." 

terest.    As  the  plot  of  the  ''  Iliad  "  was  laid  in  ^^^^p'^- 
the  tenth  year  of  the  siege  of  Troy,  so  the  "  Odyssey  "  first 
introduces  the  reader  to  the  wanderings   of  Odysseus 
when   they  have   already  been   in  progress  ten  years. 
The  sea-god  Poseidon  is  his  sworn  enemy,  and  has  kept 
him  storm-tossed  and  weary  far  away  from  his  island 
home.     He  is  being  detained  by  Calypso  in  the  isle  of 
Ogygia  in  the  Far  West  beyond  the  straits  of  Gibraltar, 
an  unwilling  guest,  sighing  to  be  gone.    Far  away  to  the 
east  in  craggy  Ithaca,  his  faithful  and  much-tried  wife 
Penelope  is  being  worried  to  death  by  impatient  and 
ungallant  suitors,  who  devour  her  substance  in  riotous 
living.     Telemachus  appeals  in  vain  to  the  Ithacans  for 
protection  for  his  mother  and  himself,  but  the  goddess 
Athene,  disguised  as  old  Mentor,  helps  him  to  start  on  a 
search  for  his  long-lost  father.     He  is  hospitably  enter- 
tained by  Nestor,  the  aged  king  of  Pylus,  and  goes  on  to 
Sparta,  where  Menelaus  and  Helen  show  him  kindness 
and  tell  him  of  his  father's  whereabouts.     He  then  sets 
out   on    his   return   to   Ithaca.     ]\feanwhile   the   gods, 
softened  at  last,  send  Hermes  to  Calypso  with  orders 

K 


130 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


to  let  Odysseus  go,  and  she  reluctantly  obeys  and  even 
facilitates  Lis  departure  : 

She  then  an  axo  of  huge  dimensions  gave,* 

On  both  sides  bladed,  steel  of  temper  fine, 
Into  the  strong  clasp  of  Odysseus  bravo, 

Beautiful,  helved  with  olive,  work  divine, 
And  well-carved  hatchet,  whose  metallic  shine 

Lightened  afar.     Anon  the  way  she  led 
To  the  isle's  margin,  where  the  soaring  pine. 

Alder,  and  poplar  black,  were  thickly  spread, 
Fitted  to  float  with  ease— sapless  long  since  and  dead. 

Odysseus  then  built  himself  a  raft,  which  is  described 
in  elaborate  detail.     At  last 

'Twas  the  fourth  day,  and  all  his  task  was  o'er.f 

Him  on  the  fifth  Calypso,  nymph  divine. 
Robed  in  sweet  raiment,  culled  from  her  own  store, 

And  bathed,  and  to  his  good  bark  did  consign. 

Two  skins,  one  filled  with  water,  one  with  wine, 
She  gave  him  and  a  wallet  stored  with  meat. 

And  in  his  wake  along  the  rippling  brine 
Breathed  a  warm  wind,  exceeding  soft  and  sweet. 

Which  with  spread  sails  Odysseus  did  right  gladly  greet. 

On  the  eighteenth  day  of  his  eastward  voyage  he  is 
once  more  wrecked,  swims  ashore  at  the  mouth  of 
Nansicaa.  ^.  ^^^^^  ^^  *^®  ^^nd  of  the  sea-loving  Phaea- 
cians,  and  falls  asleep  among  the  low  bushes 
on  the  river  bank.  It  so  happens  that  Nausicaa, 
daughter  of  the  king  Alcinous,  comes  down  to  the 
water's  edge  with  her  handmaidens,  like  Pharaoh's 
daughter  of  old,  but  with  the  very  prosaic  object  of 
washing  the  family  linen.  The  washing  done,  a  game 
of  ball  is  started,  and  the  girlish  laughter  it  excites 
wakes  the  weary  Odysseus.  Nausicaa's  generous  heart 
is  touched  a^  the  sight  of  his  travel-worn  and  woe- 
begone appearance,  and  she  tells  him  the  way  to  the 

♦  "  Odyssey,"  v.  234.     (Translated  by  Worsley.) 
t  Ibid. 


I 


THE    TKOJAN  WAE 


131 


palace  and  invites  him  to  lay  his  case  before  the  king, 
her  father.  The  royal  pair  are  as  kind  as  their  daughter. 
Odysseus  is  most  hospitably  entertained,  tells  the  story 
of  his  last  eventful  voyage  which  brought  him  to  the 
Phaeacian  land,  and  implores  his  hosts  to  complete 
their  kindness  by  giving  him  a  ship  in  which  to  go  to 
his  longed-for  home.  The  request  is  granted :  he  shall 
have  a  ship  and  return  to  his  island,  which  is  at  no 
great  distance. 

But  meanwhile  in  the  stranger's  honour  games  are 
held  and  a  banquet  given.  The  blind  minstrel  Demo- 
docus  is  brought  in  and  sings  a  song  of  Troy,  and 
Odysseus  cannot  conceal  his  emotion.  He  at  length 
yields  to  great  pressure  and  reveals  his  identity,  and 
entertains  his  hosts  with  the  narrative  of  his  adventures 
since  his  departure  from  Troy. 

These  are  spread  over  the  next  four  books  (9-12) 
which  constitute  the  fairy  tale  portion  of  the  poem, 
the  ** Arabian  Nights"  of  Greek  literature.  The 
Odysseus  and  his  companions  first  touched  at  Cicones. 
the  coast  of  the  Cicones  and  committed  an  apparently 
totally  unprovoked  act  of  piracy,  sacking  their  town  and 
stealing  their  wives  and  other  property,  nobody  going 
without  a  good  share  of  spoil.  But  instead  of  obeying 
their  leader's  advice  to  make  good  their  retreat  to  the 
ships,  the  plunderers  broke  into  their  victims'  cellars. 
''  Then  was  there  much  wine  drunk,"  and  they  killed 
and  roasted  oxen  and  sheep  on  the  sea  shore.  In  the 
midst  of  the  feasting  the  rightful  owners  of  wives, 
cattle,  and  wine  suddenly  appeared  on  the  scene  with 
great  reinforcements,  numberless  as  the  leaves  in  spring, 
and,  when  evening  fell,  they  had  made  a  very  proper 
slaughter  of  the  robbers. 

Sadder,  but  not  much  wiser,  as  the  sequel  shows, 
Odysseus   and  his    company   sailed   south,   but  when 


132 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


trying  to  round  Cape  jMalea,  were  driven  out  of  their 
course  nine  days  to  the  pleasant  land  of  the  Lotus- 
The  Lotus-  eaters.  So  tempting  ^yas  the  diet  of  these 
eaters.  ^arly  Sybarites,  that  Odysseus  had  to  drag 

his  companions  by  main  force  to  the  ships  and  bind 
them  securely  under  the  rowing-benches,  or  they 
would  never  have  stirred  from  that  Paradise  or  met 
with  their  further  adventures,  and  the  world  would  have 
been  the  poorer. 

Their  next  exploit  was  perhaps  the  most  famous  of 
all,  the  blinding  of  the  Cyclops  Polyphemus.  Every 
The  boy  and  girl  knows  the  story  of  the  one-eyed 

y'  °P^-  monster,  who  was  *'  not  like  a  bread-eating 
man  but  like  unto  a  wooded  peak  of  a  lofty  mountain, 
towering  alone  above  the  rest."  The  wanderers  entered 
his  cave  while  he  was  on  the  hills  pasturing  his  flocks. 
This  time  it  was  Odysseus  who  was  responsible  for 
delay,  though  his  companions  strongly  urged  with  their 
piratical  instinct  that  they  should  drive  off  their  absent 
host's  kids  and  lambs  to  the  ships  and  make  good  their 
escape.  Odysseus'  curiosity  gets  the  better  of  him ;  he 
decides  to  see  the  giant.  To  fill  up  the  interval  of 
waiting,  the  visitors,  with  characteristic  composure, 
make  themselves  at  home,  light  a  fire,  and  dine  off  the 
absent  giant's  cheeses.  In  the  evening  their  unconscious 
host  comes  home,  and  they  make  themselves  small  in 
the  furthest  corner  of  the  cave.  But  on  lighting  his 
fire  he  catches  sight  of  them,  and  at  first  asks  them  a 
perfectly  reasonable  and  civil  question.  ''  Who  are  you, 
strangers?  Whence  come  you  over  the  paths  of  the 
sea  ?  Are  you  traffickers  on  business  bent,  or  do  you 
roam  over  the  briny  deep  like  pirates  who  risk  their  own 
lives  and  bring  mischief  to  others '?  "  They  inform  him 
of  their  origin,  occupation,  and  destination,  and,  feeling 
uneasy,  urge  on  him  the  claims  of  religion.     He  quickly 


I 


THE   TROJAN   WAR 


I 


133 


undeceives   them   on  that   score,   declaring  himself  a 
thorough-going  atheist,  and,  without  more  ado,  seizes 
two  of  them,  dashes  out  their  brains  against  the  floor  of 
the  cave  and  eats  them  for  supper.     Next  morning  he 
devours  two  more  for  breakfast,  goes  out  and  bars  the 
door  behind  him,  leaving  them  to  darkness  and  their 
own  more  gloomy  anticipations.     With  the  evening  he 
returns  punctually,  and  makes  a  meal  of  two  more  of 
the  poor  wretches.     But  his  doom  is  sealed.     Having 
laid  his  plans  carefully,  the  wily  Odysseus,  pretending 
friendship,  makes  the  monster  drunk  with  sweet  strong 
wine,  to  which  he  is  all  unused,  and  then,  while  he  lies 
sleeping  heavily,  puts  out  his  eye  with  the  giant's  own 
club,   the   end  of  which   he  has  carefully  sharpened. 
Next   morning  Polyphemus   sits   in  the  doorway  with 
hands  outstretched  to  count  his  flock  as  they  emerge. 
The  position  of  the  band  of  adventurers  is  still  pre- 
carious.    But  in  a  "  blind  man's  buff,*'  where  the  blind 
manjs  really  blind,  he  is  effectively  handicapped,  and 
the   miscreants   all   escape   by   concealing  themselves 
under  the  thick-fleeced  rams  of  the  flock.     The  enraged 
Cyclops  hurls  rocks  after  their  retreating  ship,  but  the 
missiles  drop  short  and  help  the  vessel  forward. 

This  was  only  a  beginning  of  adventures.     The  fugi- 
tives rejoined  the  other  ships  at  the  desert  island  where 
they  had   left  them,  and  together  the  little 
fleet  came  to  the  floating  island  of  Aeolus,  '^^°^'''' 
whose  gift  of  a  bag  containing  all  the  winds  save  one 
imprisoned  in  it  was  rendered  useless  by  the  meddle- 
some curiosity  of  a  ship's  crew.     Six  days'  and  nights* 
sailing  next  brought  them  to  the  Laestrygo-  The  laes- 
nian  cannibals.    Three  men  were  sent  forward  trygonians. 
as  scouts,  and  were  directed  by  a  harmless-looking  girl 
whom  they  met  at  a  village  fountain  to  the  king's  palace. 
The  queen,  a  stalwart  lady  "  as  tall  as  a  mountain  peak," 


134 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Circe. 


on  seeing  them  called  out  to  her  hushand,  Antiphafces, 
who,  without  warning,  seized  and  ate  one  of  the  hapless 
trio.    The  other  two  spread  the  alarm,  but  too  late.    The 
huge  cannibals  swarmed  down  to  the  shore,  and  Odysseus 
and  his  own  ship  and  crew  were  alone  able  to  escape  from 
a  general  massacre  of  men  and  smashing  of  ships.    The 
enchantress  Circe,  on  whose  island  they  next 
landed,  turned  twenty-two  of  Odysseus*  men 
into  swine.      Odysseus,  however,   fortified   by  Hermes 
with  a  powerful  antidote,  not  only  resisted  her  spells, 
but  compelled  her  to  restore  his  comrades  to  their  human 
shapes.     In  the  land  of  the  Cimmerians  Odysseus  saw 
The  ghosts.    ^^^  Conversed  with  many  ghosts  of  the  illus- 
trious dead,  both  men  and  women,  including 
among  many  others  Teiresias,  the  blind  prophet,  Anti- 
cleia,  the  hero's  mother,  Leda,  the  mother  of  Castor  and 
Pollux,  Agamemnon,  king  of  men,  Achilles,  the  swiftest 
and  handsomest  of  the  Greeks,  and  the  unfortunate  Ajax, 
who,  however,  turned  away  in  scornful  and  indignant 
silence  from  his  old  rival.    After  adventures  with  the 
Sirens,   Scylla  and  Charybdis,  and  the  sacred  oxen  of 
the  Sun,  they  came  to  Calypso's  island  of  Ogygia,  from 
whence  Odysseus,  as  we  learnt  from  the  opening  of  the 
poem,  all  alone  on  a  kind  of  raft  reached  the  land  of 
the  Phaeacians.     It  is  unpleasant  work  to  abbreviate  a 
story  so  full  of  charm  and  interest,  which  never  for  a 
moment  flag.     To  cut  a  long  story  short,  Odysseus  is 
Odysseus        escorted  by  the  Pliaeacians  to  his  own  island 
ithaci^         of  Ithaca,  is  disguised  by  the  goddess  Athene 
as  an  old  beggar,  finds  his  swineherd  Eumaeus 
faithful,  reveals  himself  to  his  son  Telemachus,  is  recog- 
nized by  his   old  dog  Argus,   and  by  his   old  nurse 
Eurycleia,  whom  he  strictly  charges  to  be  silent,  has 
an  interview  with  Penelope,  who  does  not  know  him, 
and  finally,  when  all  the  plans  have  been  well  laid, 


THE   TROJAN  WAR 


135 


throws  off  his  disguise,  and,  with  his  son  and  two 
trusty  followers,  massacres  the  shameless  suitors,  who 
are  revelling  as  usual  in  the  banqueting-hall.  Not  one 
escapes.  Penelope,  the  patient  and  faithful,  recognizes 
her  lord,  who  now  goes  into  the  country  and  reveals 
himself  to  his  aged  father  Laertes,  and  on  his  return 
quells  an  insurrection  of  the  Ithacans  in  favour  of  the 
dead  suitors,  and  restores  order  and  peace  in  his  island 
domain. 

Thus  the  deathless  double  romance  of  war  and 
adventure,  the  oldest  jewel  in  the  crown  of  European 
literature,  and  its  briUiancy  still  undimmed.  The  ©pic 
The  charm  and  fascination  of  Homer's  poems  inunortal. 
can  never  fade.  After  thirty  centuries  they  still  draw 
the  reader,  no  matter  how  wide  and  varied  his  reading 
or  how  deep  his  learning,  with  an  ever  fresh  and  irre- 
sistible attraction. 

Time's  ashes,  on  my  turrets  shed, 

Have  worn  their  pride  away : 
I  was  that  Ilion  of  whom  men  have  read 

In  Homer's  living  lay  1 
No  more  shall  Argive  sword  and  spear 

My  brazen  bulwark  shake : 
But  in  the  voice  of  nations  loud  and  clear 

My  monument  I  make.* 

And  Keats  has  put  on  record  how  his  poet's  soul  was 
stirred  on  hearing  the  magic  song  f — 

Then  felt  I  like  some  watcher  of  the  skies 
When  a  new  planet  swims  into  his  ken  : 

Or  like  stout  Cortez  when  with  eagle  eyes 
He  stared  at  the  Pacific — and  all  his  men 

Looked  at  each  other  with  a  wild  surmise — 
Silent,  upon  a  peak  in  Darien. 


♦  Eueuus,  transl.  by  C.  Merivale  in  Bland's  "  Anthology." 
t  Keats,  "  Sonnet  on  Chapman's  Homer." 


136 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


But  to  the   modern  mind   the    inevitable  question 
obtrudes  itself,  How  far  is  all  this  true  ?     The  answer 
Historical      <iepends  on  the  meaning  attached  to  **  truth." 
basis  of  the    There  is  no  need  to  believe  that  all  the  inci- 
stones.         dents  of  the   **  Iliad  "  were  real  events  in 
history,  or  that  Odysseus  went  through  all  the  adventures 
that  he  is  credited  with  in  the  "  Odyssey  "  !    In  fact,  it  is 
quite  obvious  that  many  of  the  adventures  can  never 
have  really  befallen  him,  but  are  merely  the  offspring 
of  poetic  fancy.     It  would  be  beside  the  mark  to  seek  to 
identify  the  Cyclopes,  or  the  Laestrygonians,  or  Circe, 
or  Calypso ;  and  it  is  not  necessary  to  suppose  that  the 
poems  faithfully  record  the  names  of  the  heroes  who 
Homer.         fought  at  Troy.     The  authorship,  too,  of  the 
poem  is   wrapt  in  mystery.     There  are,  at 
least,  eight  biographies  of  Homer  in  existence,  but  all 
of  them   equally   valueless   as   history.      Seven   cities 
claimed    the   distinction  of  being  his   bu'thplace,  and 
later  the  number  of  claimants   rose   to  twenty.     One 
story  was  that  he  was   blind   and  came   from  Chios. 
Another  that  he  was  the  son  of  the  river  Meles  and  the 
nymph  Critheis,  and  was  born  in  Smyrna. 

From  Colophon  some  deem  thee  sprung ; 
From  Smyrna  some,  and  some  from  Chios ; 
These  noble  Salamis  have  sung, 
While  those  proclaim  thee  born  in  los  ; 
And  others  cry  up  Thessaly, 
The  mother  of  the  Lapithae. 

Thus  each  to  Homer  has  assigned 
The  birthplace  just  which  suits  his  mind. 
But  if  I  read  the  volume  right 
By  Phoebus  to  his  followers  given, 
I'd  say  they're  all  mistaken  quite, 
And  that  his  real  country's  Heaven  ; 
While  for  his  mother — she  can  be 
No  other  than  Calliope. 

Antipater  of  Sidon 
(transl.  by  Merivale  in  Bland's  "  Anthology  "). 


THE   TROJAN   WAR 


137 


Herodotus  believed  that  he  flourished  about  850  b.c. 
Be  these  things  as  they  may,  it  is  sufiQcient  to  bear  in  mind, 
firstly  that  the  poems  existed,  in  practically  their  present 
form,  at  the  very  beginning  of  Greek  history,  and  that 
therefore  some  poet  or  poets — the  name  is  immaterial — 
composed  them  at  a  very  remote  period  ;  and  secondly, 
that  the  stories  are  **true,"  even  though  they  be  not 
attested  chronicles  of  real  individual  events,  in  the 
important  sense  that  they  give  us  a  true  picture  of  the 
life  of  the  age  with  which  they  deal,  and  that  the  non- 
marvellous  events  recounted  are  based  on  historical 
events,  or  are,  at  least,  such  as  might  have  occurred 
in  that  age.  A  glance  at  M.  Berard's  book  *  will  show 
how  it  is  possible  to  identify,  with  a  considerable  degree 
of  probability,  many  of  the  sites  of  the  "  Odyssey."  The 
sailors  of  the  Homeric  Age  seem  to  have  ventured 
beyond  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  and  perhaps  even 
(according  to  one  view  of  the  Laestrygonians)  to  have 
reached  semi-arctic  regions  ("  Odyssey,"  Bk.  x.  82). 

The  "  Homeric  Question  "  is  a  famous  controversy 
which  has  raged  for  many  years  and  filled  many  a 
learned  book.  But,  without  going  into  the  The  site  of 
details  of  the  arguments,  it  may  be  said  that  ^^^'y- 
the  state  of  things  described  agrees  very  well  with  what 
we  know  from  other  sources  of  the  **  Late  Minoan"  age, 
that  closing  epoch  of  *'  Aegean  "  civilization,  between 
1400  and  1000  b.c.  About  1400  b.c.  a  great  com- 
motion seems  to  have  shaken  the  old  Cretan  world. 
Cnossus  was  probably  taken  and  burnt  and  its  empire 
dismembered.  With  this  weakening  of  the  central 
state,  outlying  towns  grew  into  prominence  on  both 
sides  of  the  Aegean,  such  as  Mycenae,  Tiryns,  and 
Troy.  With  the  lack  of  cohesion  of  the  decaying 
empire,   individual  cities,  nominally  sisters,  may  well 

♦  "  Les  Ph6niciens  et  I'Ddyss^e." 


138 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


have  vented  their  rivalries  in  war.  The  Troad  has 
been  carefully  explored,  and  it  is  not  difficult  to  identify 
the  site  of  Homer's  Troy.  On  the  spurs  of  Mt.  Ida, 
at  Bunarbashi,  there  is  a  magnificent  site  commanding 
the  Trojan  plain,  complete  with  beetling  rock,  river, 
and  springs  as  the  poet  describes  them.  No  long 
distance  off,  on  the  low  mound  of  Hissarlik,  there  are 
remains  (among  others)  of  a  fortified  city  of  the  required 
age  and  character,  and  which  certainly,  in  historical 
times,  bore  the  name  of  Ilios  (Troy).  It  might  be  argued 
that  the  poet,  on  the  wings  of  fancy,  and  exercising  his 
recognized  privilege  of  creative  freedom,  has  simply 
combined  the  two  sites  and  given  us  a  glorified  Troy  in 
an  ideal  situation. 

But  we  need  not  even  suppose  this  **  poetic  licence." 
Excavations  *  on  the  mound  of  Hissarhk,  which  is 
about  100  feet  high  and  five  acres  in  extent,  have 
TheHis-  revealed  nine  layers  of  remains  of  cities, 
sariik  site.  The  earliest  settlement  must  date  from  about 
3000  B.C.  The  second  city,  of  about  2500  b.c,  was  found 
to  contain  a  number  of  valuable  gold  ornaments.  This 
was  followed  by  three  successive  villages  of  no  import- 
ance ;  but  the  sixth  city  is  beyond  doubt  that  described 
in  the  *'  Ihad."  It  seems  to  have  been  destroyed  by  fire 
soon  after  1200  b.c,  and  the  traditional  date  of  the  fall 
of  Troy  is  1184.  It  is  surrounded  with  a  double  ring 
of  lofty  stone  walls,  which  would  justify  the  poet's 
epithet  of  **  beetling  " ;  it  is  *' windy,"  for  during  eight 
months  of  the  twelve  it  is  pitilessly  swept  by  a  strong 
north  wind ;  and  it  is  "  broad-wayed,"  for  there  are  wide 
paved  ways,  twenty-five  to  thirty  feet  broad,  running 
between  the  two  lines  of  walls.    Thus  the  characteristic 

*  For  the  main  facts  and  arguments  of  this  paragraph  and  the  next, 
I  am  indebted  to  a  lecture  given  at  Harrow  School  by  Dr.  W.  Leaf, 
December,  1911. 


THE   TROJAN  WAR 


139 


features  of  Homer's  Troy  are  present.  The  ground 
around,  outside  the  walls,  is  well  suited  for  a  pursuit  on 
foot.  It  is  true  the  pair  of  springs,  hot  and  cold, 
cannot  be  identified;  perhaps  the  poet  here  used  his 
privilege,  or  perhaps  an  earthquake  has  altered  the 
geological  conditions. 

Though  it  is  usual  to  speak  of  the  "  Siege  "  of  Troy, 
there  was,  properly  speaking,  no  siege.     We  hear  of  no 
battering-rams    or    scaling-ladders   or   siege  cause  and 
operations.     There  was  not  even  a  blockade,  character 
Agamemnon's  army  simply  established  a  forti-  ^^  ^^^  ^*^* 
fied  camp  close  to  the  sea,  and  deprived  Troy  of  its  live- 
lihood till  it  deprived  it  of  life.     The  situation  was  as 
follows  :    Greece,  itself  a  poor  country  with  very  little 
natural  produce,  did  a  great  trade  with  the  Black  Sea, 
from  which  it  obtained  corn,  and  also  timber  and  slaves. 
Now  the  Hellespont,  or  Dardanelles,  the  only  entrance 
into  that  region,  was  in  those  days  of  small  sailing  ships 
difficult  to  negotiate  owing  to  winds  and  currents.    Ships 
were  therefore  often  delayed  off  that  coast,  which  Troy, 
a  powerful  fortress  only  three  miles  from  the  sea,  held 
in  its  grasp  through  its  sole  control  of  the  fresh  water 
supply.     In  England,  or  any  other  country  which  has 
seen  a  feudal  system,  it  is  well  known  what  a  nuisance 
a  robber-baron  in  a  rock-built  castle  could  become.     So 
it  proved  with  Troy.     The  impregnable  city  levied  toll 
on  all  the  commerce  passing  to  and  fro  under  her  walls. 
It  was  soon  felt  that  she  practically  controlled  the  food- 
supply  of  Greece,  and  the   grievance   was  intolerable. 
Men  will  bear  much,  but  they  will  not  consent  to  starve 
if  they  can  find  a  remedy.     In  such  a  general  feeling  of 
irritation  and  alarm,  any  unfriendly  act  would  suffice 
to  precipitate  war.     Very  possibly  the  casus  belli  was 
just    such    an    act    as    the    abduction   of    a    Spartan 
princess.     The  great  Crusade  sailed,  pitched  its  camp, 


140 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


and  slowly  but  surely  crushed  the  life  out  of  the  proud 
city. 

Thus  the  famous  city,  flown 
With  insolence,  and  overgrown, 
Is  humbled  :  all  her  splendour  blown 
To  smoke  :  her  glory  laid  in  dust ; 
Who  shall  say  by  doom  unjust  ?  * 

At  thcat  epoch,  there  was  no  difference  between  the 
Greeks  of  the  West  and  the  Trojans  in  Asia  Minor. 
The  They  were  all  alike  ''  Aegeans."     They  spoke 

Achaeans.      ^j^^  ^^^^  language  and  used  the  same  dress, 
arms  and  armour.     The  war  was  a  kind  of  civil  war. 
The  terms  Hellenes  and  Hellas  did  not  yet  exist  as 
names  for  Greeks  and  Greece.     The-  Greeks  attacking 
Troy  are  nearly  always  called  Achaeans,  that  being  the 
name  of  the  tribe  which  at  that  time  possessed  nearly 
all  Peloponnese.    Athens,  Corinth  and  Thebes  are  barely 
mentioned,  and  were  therefore  no  doubt  of  no  import- 
ance.    Sparta   and  Argos  were  in  the  second  rank  of 
towns.     The  leading  city  of  the  Greece  of  those  days 
was    Mycenae,    the    wealthy    or     *' golden"    city     of 
Agamemnon,  king   of  men,  who  seems  to  have  quite 
naturally  taken  the  chief   command   in  the  combined 
expedition   of  the  western    states   against   Troy.     The 
"Achaeans  "  were  good  soldiers  and  possessed  the  spirit 
of   adventure;  they  had  joined,  as   has   been  shown, 
in   an  invasion  of  Egypt  in  the   reign   of  the   weak 
Merenptah.    But  the  loosely-knit  empire  or  confedera- 
tion was  crumbling,  and  was  doomed  ere  long  to  fall 
before  a  determined  invasion. 

♦  Chorus  in  the  "  Agamemnon,"  trausl.  by  E.  FitzGerald. 


CHAPTER   IX 


THE    DORIANS   AND   THE    DAWN   OF   GREEK   HISTORY 

The  great  invasion  came  from  the  north  and  changed 
the  face  of  the  Greek  world.   About  IGOO  e.g.   Aryans  had 
conqured  the  Punjab  and  were  busy  subduing   _    .    . 
the  rest  of  India.     A  little  later  their  kinsmen    o/Greek^^ 
had  made  themselves  a  home  in  Persia.     But   ^^^^^^y- 
the  lands  of  the  West  must  have  their  turn  too.     Sure 
enough,  about  1100  or  1000  b.c.  the  Aegean  world  was 
convulsed  by  a  complete  and  epoch-making  conquest  by 
invaders  from  the  north  and  east.     The  Dorian  invasion 
as  it  is  called,  is  a  landmark  in  Greek  history.     Before 
that  event,  all  is  misty  and  uncertain.     Inference  and 
conjecture  take  the  place  of  definite  records.     But  after 
it  w^e  are  on  sure  ground.     Events  drop  into  their  places. 
In  fact,  real  history  has  begun. 

It  would  be  tedious  to  enter  fully  into  all  the  learned 
arguments  on  the  subject  of  the  Dorians.  The  following 
outline  may  suffice  as  a  working  theory  which 
will  fairly  harmonize  the  facts  as  at  present  of"the' 
known.  To  repeat  a  statement  in  a  former  Dorians, 
chapter,  the  Aegean  empire  of  Cnossus  in  Crete,  the 
language  of  whose  records  is  still  undeciphered,  was  most 
probably  non-Hellenic  but  probably  not  non-Aryan. 
Possibly  it  had  been  founded  by  a  race  from  Northern  or 
Eastern  Africa.  About  1500  or  1400  b.c,  the  empire 
was  rudely  shaken  and  the  capital  sacked  and  burnt. 
This  may  have  been  done  by  forerunners  of  the  Aryan 
Hellenes,  a  kind  of  advance-guard  of  the  Dorians.    New 

141 


Forerunners 


142 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


cities  rose  to  fame  and  power  at  Mycenae,  Argos,  and 
Sparta.  It  is  difficult  to  say  anything  with  certainty 
about  Homer  or  the  age  he  depicts,  but  it  is  quite 
possible  that  this  preliminary  invasion  was  that  of  the 
race  called  by  him  Achaeans.  It  is  worth  notice  that 
about  1350  the  Keftiu  (Cretans)  cease  to  appear  on 
Egyptian  monuments.  Their  place  is  taken  by  the 
**  People  of  the  Sea,"  who  by  1200  b.c.  are  called  by 
Barneses  III.  the  second  Pharaoh  after  Merenptah,  the 
Pharaoh  of  the  Exodus,  **  Akaiusha,"  which  name  seems 
certainly  to  stand  for  the  Achaeans.  In  the  "  Iliad  "  the 
chief  power  in  Greece  is  in  the  hands  of  the  Achaeans^ 
especially  at  Mycenae,  and  the  name  is  frequently  used 
as  a  general  term  for  the  Greeks  who  went  to  the  siege 
of  non-Achaean  Troy.  In  many  ways,  certainly,  the 
Homeric  poems  seem  to  depict  an  epoch  standing,  in 
customs,  manners,  dress,  weapons,  and  ideas,  half-way 
between  the  Aegean  and  the  Hellenic  ages. 

But,  whether  the  Achaeans  of  Homer  represent 
the  Aegeans  as  known  to  us  from  their  many  extant 
The  remains,  or  stand  in  a  transitional  period,  the 

Dorians.  great  event  known  as  the  Dorian  invasion 
clinched  the  matter  and  put  a  seal  on  the  Hellenization 
of  the  region  usually  called  Hellas,  and,  by  us,  Greece. 
Once  more  the  palace  of  Cnossus  was  burnt.  This  time 
it  was  never  rebuilt.  The  catastrophe  was  final.  By 
about  1000  B.C.,  when  King  David  was  consolidating  the 
young  Israelite  kingdom  in  Palestine,  the  Aegean  Empire 
with  its  particular  form  of  civilization,  language,  and  art, 
passed  for  ever  away,  and  the  Hellenic  race  started  on 
its  glorious  career.  Thus  in  the  same  fateful  century, 
two  equally  small  and  not  very  widely  separated  countries 
were  providing  homes  for  those  two  supremely  gifted 
nations  to  which  the  modern  world,  in  different  ways, 
owes  perhaps  more  than  to  any  other. 


THE  DAWN   OF   GREEK  HISTORY        143 

The  Dorian  invasion  proved  the  final  victory  of 
iron  over  bronze.  The  superior  metal  would  facilitate 
the  work  of  conquest,  and  the  inferior  dropped  The 
out  of  use  from  this  date.  Like  the  later  Heracleidae. 
Teutonic  irruptions  into  the  Roman  Empire  and  the 
Norman  Conquest  of  our  own  country,  the  Dorian 
conquest  left  an  abiding  mark  on  history,  and  made  a 
deep  impression  on  the  popular  memory.  It  was  known 
to  Greek  tradition  as  the  "  Return  of  the  Heracleidae," 
and  many  of  the  oldest  aristocratic  families  of  Greece, 
not  excluding  even  Macedonia,  prided  themselves  on 
being  descendants  of  the  great  Heracles  and  having 
come  in  with  the  conquerors.  So  now  it  is  not  an 
infrequent  boast  that  an  ancestor  "  came  over  with 
the  Conqueror,"  and  human  nature  has  changed  but 
little  in  thirty  centuries.  The  accepted  story  of  the 
"Return  of  the  Heracleidae,"  referring  as  it  does  to 
events  which  did  not  claim  any  very  great  antiquity,  may 
be  considered  as  only  slightly  mythical  and  containing 
a  large  measure  of  quite  trustworthy  history. 

For  a  proper  understanding  of  the  story,  it  may  not 
be  amiss  to  trace  its  earlier  antecedents.  The  complete 
tale,  compact  of  fact  and  fancy,  history  and  myth,  may 
well  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the  ancient  method  of 
history-writing,  or  romance-weaving,  among  the  Greeks. 
The  two  processes  are  not  always  very  distinct :  and  it 
will  be  seen  that  not  infrequently  what  passes  for 
history  is  fiction,  while  from  apparently  irresponsible 
mythology  may  be  distilled  a  great  deal  of  sound 
history. 

The  ancient  story  runs  as  follows.     In  the  beginning 
there  reigned  in  solitary  splendour  King  Uranus  (Sky) 
and  his  consort  Ge  (Earth),  and  at  first  all   The  family 
was  for  the  best  in  the  best  of  possible  worlds,    of  Uranus. 
But  the  royal  pair  had  a  numerous  family  of  gigantic 


144 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


sons  and  (laughters,  and  with  it,  as  so  often  happens, 
came  trouble.  The  eldest  son  was  Oceanus  (Ocean), 
the  father  of  three  thousand  rivers,  and  tlie  baby  of  the 
family  was  Cronos  (Creator).  King  Uranus  hated  all 
his  children — perhaps  there  were  too  many  for  his 
comfort — and  treated  them  accordingly;  and  the 
sentiment  was  reciprocated.  Relations  were  very 
strained,  till  at  last  Cronos,  his  mother's  darling,  at 
her  instigation  and  by  her  help,  slew  his  father  and 
seized  his  throne.  By  his  wife  Rhea  (perhaps  Earth  ?) 
he  had  several  children,  of  whom  we  may  mention 
three  sons,  Zeus,  Hades,  and  Poseidon.  But  his 
unnatural  crime  found  him  out,  and  he  was  treated 
by  Zeus  as  he  had  treated  Uranus.  This  time  the 
inheritance  w^as  divided  by  lot.  Zeus  obtained  the 
Heaven,  Hades  the  lower  world,  and  Poseidon  the 
sea. 

The  private  life  and  adventures  of  Zeus  would  lill  a 
volume  by  themselves,  and  must  be  omitted  here. 
Poseidon  married  Libya,  the  great-great-granddaughter 
The  of  his  uncle  Oceanus,  and   their   son   Belus, 

Danaides.  xjj^g  ^f  ^]jq  gast,  was  the  father  of  Danaus 
and  Aegyptus,  the  first  of  whom  had  fifty  daughters  (the 
Danaides),  and  the  other  fifty  sons.  This  remarkable 
coincidence  seemed  like  the  finger  of  Providence  to 
Aegyptus,  who  proposed  to  Danaus  that  the  fifty  pairs 
of  cousins  should  be  married.  The  girls,  however,  had 
their  own  ideas  on  the  subject,  and  Danaus,  respecting 
their  wishes,  fled  with  them  to  Argos,  of  which  he  was 
made  king.  Undeterred,  the  fifty  suitors  followed,  and 
the  weddings  took  place  unfortunately,  as  it  turned  out, 
for  them.  For  the  same  night  they  were,  by  Danaus' 
orders,  murdered  by  their  brides,  all  except  Lynceus, 
who  was  spared  by  his,  that  Hypermnaestra  immortalized 
by  Horace : 


THE   DAWN   OF   GREEK  HISTORY        145 

Una  do  multis  face  nuptiali 
Digna  periurum  fuit  in  parentem 
Splendido  mendax  et  in  omne  virgo 
Nobilis  aevum.  * 

Their  grandson  Acrisius,  King  of  Argos,  was   the 
father  of  the  famous  Danae  (called   after  her   great- 
great-grandfather)  who  was  immured  by  her 
nervous  parent  in  a  tower  of  brass  to  defeat    ^*''*®* 
the  importunities  of  possible  suitors.     But  Zeus  (who, 
it   ought  to  have  been  mentioned,  was  immortal  and 
unaging,   and    continued  to    interfere    in   the   private 
concerns  of  his  family  on  frequent  occasions  through  the 
centuries)  laughed  at  the  brass,  and,  in  the  shape  of 
a  shower  of  that  far  superior  metal,  gold,  penetrated 
the  roof  and  pressed  his  suit  successfully.     Danae's  son 
was  the  illustrious  Perseus.     See  how  many  old  friends 
we  recognize  as  we  follow  the  pedigree.     There  are 
many  more  to  come. 

Now  Perseus  founded  golden  Mycenae,  the  great 
Aegean  city,  once  obedient  to  Cnossus  and  afterwards 
the  capital  of  the  Achaeans  who  fought  at 
Troy.     He  also,  as  is  well  known,  rescued  the   ^®^^®^^- 
hapless  Andromeda  from  an  unscrupulous  dragon,  and 
as  was  very  proper,  married  the  fair  lady  who  owed  him 
her  life   and  gave  him  her  heart.     Mark  the  sequel. 
The  plot  begins  to  thicken  and  the  historical  element  to 
solidify.    Perseus  and   Andromeda   had   among   other 
children  three  sons,  Electryon,  Alcaeus,  and  Sthenelus. 
Alcaeus  reigned  at  Troezen,  and  his  son  Amphitryon 
became  the  step-father  of  Heracles  the  mighty  man  of 
immortal    memory    and    son    of    Alcmene    and    the 
ubiquitous  Zeus.     Electryon  reigned  in  golden  Mycenae, 
where,  by  an  unfortunate  accident,  he  had  his  head 
broken  by  his  nephew  Amphitryon,  and  was  succeeded 

*  Horace,  Odes,  III.  xl.  35. 


146 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


by  the  third  of  the  trio,  Sthenehis.  Now,  this  Sthenelus, 
who  could  claim  a  place  for  Zeus  in  his  pedigree, 
naturally  looked  about  him  for  a  wife  of  similarly 
distinguished  descent,  and  married  the  lady  Nicippe,  a 
daughter  of  Pelops,  King  of  Pisa  in  Elis,  who  w^as  the 
son  of  Tantalus,  the  son  (once  more)  of  Zeus. 

Although  her  p3digree  was  thus  not  so  long  as  his, 
the  family  of  the  Pelopids,  as  fhey  were  called,  easily 
The  House  eclipsed  any  in  the  world  by  the  scandals  and 
of  Pelops.  horrors  which  never  failed  to  disfigure  each 
of  its  generations.  Nicippe  had  two  brothers,  whom 
Sthenelus  very  kindly  invited  to  Mycenae.  One  of  these 
was  Atreus,  the  father  of  Agamemnon,  king  of  men, 
the  same  who  led  the  Achaeans  against  Troy.  So  now 
you  know  where  you  are.  Sthenelus  died  and  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Eurystheus,  who,  thanks  to  a 
trick  played  by  Hera  upon  her  lord  Zeus,  cheated  his 
cousin  Heracles  of  his  royal  inheritance  and  laid  on 
bim  strenuous  and  dangerous  labours,  at  the  end  of 
which  the  mighty  man  of  valour,  the  Samson  of 
Greek  story,  died  by  a  dramatic  and  appalling  death, 
without  recovering  his  rights. 

He,  however,  left  sons  who  gladly  took  on  them- 
selves the  duty  of  avenging  their  father.  These  were 
The  the   Heracleidae,   who  were   at  first  led   by 

Heracleidae.  Hyllus,  the  hero's  eldest  son,  and  whose 
repeated  efforts  to  wrest  their  patrimony  from 
Eurystheus  and  his  house  at  last  culminated  in  the 
great  invasion  of  the  Peloponnese,  which  is  for  ever 
famous  as  the  *' Return  of  the  Heracleidae,"  otherwise 
called  the  *'  Dorian  invasion. "  And  so,  through 
First  attack  *^^  tangle  of  fact  and  fable,  we  set  foot 
under  at    last  on    the   threshold    of  real   historv. 

^     '         Eurystheus,  going  to  war  against  Hyllus,  left 
the  conduct  of  his  kingdom  of  Mycenae  to  his  uncle 


THE  DAWN   OF   GREEK  HISTORY        147 

Atreus,   who,  on  the  death  of  Eurystheus  on  the  field 
of  battle,  married  Eurystheus'  daughter  and  took  the 
throne  for  himself,  bequeathing  it  on  his  death  to  his 
less  crime-stained  and  more  famous  son  Agamemnon. 
After  this  first  battle,  the  Heracleidae,  who  had  been 
greatly  helped  by  the   Athenians  under  their  famous 
hero    Theseus,   entered   Peloponnese,  and  maintained 
themselves  there  for  one  year,  but  were  driven  out  of  it 
again  by  a  plague.     This  time  the  Heracleidae    .  jj. 
sought  the  hospitality  of  the  Dorians.     Very   with  the 
long  ages   before  there    lived    a    most   un-   ^^^^^^s. 
exceptionable  king  called  Hellen,  so  long  before,  in  fact, 
that  some  said  he  was  the  son  of  Deucalion,  the  Noah 
of  the  Greeks.     He  reigned  over  the  country  of  Phthia 
in  Thessaly,  and  was  the  father  of  Aeolus,  Dorus,  and 
Xuthus,   who  was    the    father  of  Ion.     No    scandals 
attached  to  him,  such  as  adorned  the  pedigree  of  the 
Pelopids  and  so  many  other  blue-blooded  families  of  old. 
He  escaped  oblivion  only  by  giving  his  name  to  the  whole 
race  of  Hellenes  (commonly  called  "Greeks")  whose 
three  great  divisions  of  Aeolians,  Dorians,  and  lonians 
were   called   after  his   sons  and   grandson.      Now  the 
family  of  Hellen,  seeking  for  a  milder   climate,  had 
begun  to  move  southward,  and  his  son  Dorus  with  his 
children  had  settled  just  north  of  Mount  Parnassus,  in  a 
small   and  very  mountainous   district  called  by  them 
Doris.     It  was  to  their  descendants  that  the  Heracleidae 
now  came  for  sympathy  and  help.     Heracles  had  once 
done  a  service  to  a  Dorian  king,  and  they  thought  one 
good    turn    deserved    another.     The  Dorians  did  not 
disappoint  them. 

In    their   subsequent   attacks   on  the    Peloponnese 
the  Heracleidae  had  the  Dorians   as  power-    Later 
ful  allies.     Hence  their  triumph  is  called  by   attempts, 
historians  the  ''Dorian  invasion."     Eirst  they  tried  to 


148 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


The 

invasion 
at  last 
successful. 


force  an  entrance  by  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth,  but  failed, 
losing  their  leader  Hyllus.  No  further  attempt  was 
made  for  forty  years,  during  which  interval  the  Trojan 
War  was  fought ;  but  at  the  end  of  that  time  Hyllus'  son 
renewed  hostilities,  and  after  him  his  son  Aristomachus. 
But  both  failed  and  were  killed. 

The  last  and  victorious  invasion  was  then  made  by 
Aristomachus'  three  sons,  Aristodemus,  Temenus,  and 
Cresphontes,  at  the  head  of  a  large  Dorian 
army  and  fleet,  with,  it  is  said,  Theban  and 
even  Tyrrhenian  allies.  They  crossed  the 
Corinthian  Gulf  at  its  narrowest  point  from 
Naupactus  to  Rhium,  under  the  guidance  of  the  three- 
eyed  Oxylus,  and  the  rest  of  the  expedition  was  a 
triumphal  progress  round  the  Peloponnese.  Round 
they  went  in  the  opposite  direction  to  that  of  the 
hands  of  a  watch  or  of  the  wine  circling  round  the 
dinner-table,  down  through  Elis,  the  land  of  Olympia 
and  the  Olympian  games,  into  Messenia,  the  scene 
of  gallant  resistances,  thence  over  the  border  to 
Laconia,  the  country  of  Sparta,  up  north  again  to  the 
Argive  district  with  Tiryns  and  Argos  and  **  golden " 
Mycenae. 

Then  they  sat  down  and  cast  lots  over  the  spoil. 
Cresphontes  won  Messenia.  Aristodemus  obtained 
Division  of  Laconia,  and  his  twin  sons,  Eurysthenes  and 
the  spoil.  Procles,  were  the  first  joint-kings  of  Sparta, 
and  founders  of  the  two  parallel  lines  which  shared  that 
throne.  Temenus  was  given  Argolis,  from  which  his 
descendants  were  expelled  and  migrated  to  Macedonia, 
so  that  the  great  Alexander  could  afterwards  reply  to 
uncomplimentary  remarks  about  Macedonian  barbarians 
that  he  and  his,  at  any  rate,  were  of  the  true  stock  of 
Heracles. 

Nor  does  the   story,  for  all  its  length,  end  there. 


I 


THE   DAWN  OF   GREEK  HISTORY        149 

Some  of  the  old  Achaeans  who  had  been  dispossessed  by 
the   invaders   resolved  to    seek   new  homes 
across  the  sea  rather  than  stay  in  a  state  of   colours  • 
subjection  and  see  their  old  homes  in   the   AeoiSns.* 
hands  of  strangers,  just  as,  at  a  much  later 
date,  some  of  the  Britons,  when  ousted  by  the  Angles 
and  Saxons,  crossed  the  sea  into  Ireland.     They  sailed 
away  from  Argolis  to  the  east,  and  founded  settlements 
in  Lesbos  and  the  northern  portion  of  the  west  coast  of 
Asia  Minor,  the  land  near  the  Hellespont  (Dardanelles) 
and  the  site  of  Troy,  and  went  by  the  name  of  Aeolians. 
Then    the    lonians   followed   their   example. 
The  Dorian  invasion  had  cooped  them  up  in    ^°'^'*°^- 
Attica,  and   they  found   their   quarters   becoming  un- 
comfortably tight.     So  they   too    sailed   east,    °They 
colonized  the  Cyclades  Islands  en  route,  and,  going  on, 
settled  in   Chios   and   Samos,  and  founded  important 
trading  ports   in   Smyrna,   Ephesus,  and   Miletus,  all 
destined  to  become  famous,  and  one  of  them,  Smyrna 
to  continue  in  prosperity  to  this  day.     They  formed  a 
federation  for  mutual  protection,  and  had  a  common 
religious  centre,  a  temple  of  Poseidon,  for  they  were  a 
race  of  sailors,  at  Panionium  on  the  cape  of  Mycale. 
Lastly,  the  Dorians  themselves  were  carried 
on  by  their  own  impetus,  and  could  not  stop,    ^°"*'''- 
or  else,   as  thieves  often  do,  they  quarrelled  over  the 
plunder    and  found  the   Peloponnese  too   narrow  for 
them ;  or  else,  perhaps,  they  realized  that  the  fugitives 
had  found  a  good  thing  and  bade  fair  to  be  better  off 
than  their  conquerors,  and  so  resolved,  before  it  was  too 
late,  to  **  peg  out  a  claim  "  in  Asia  Minor.     From  what- 
ever cause,  they  too  became  colonists.     They  occupied, 
strangely  enough,    Aegina,    close    up    to    Attica,   the 
head-quarters  of  the  lonians,  but  otherwise  went  south- 
east, settling  in  the  southern  corner  of  Asia  Minor,  and 


150 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


the  southernmost  islands,  including  the  two  great  ones 
of  Rhodes  and  Crete. 

Thus  the  ancient  story.  There's  many  a  true  word 
spoken  in  jest,  and  much  history  to  he  gathered  from 
myths.  It  is  quite  clear  that,  in  spite  of 
beneath  the  all  inconsistencies,  anachronisms,  and  in 
fiction.  many  cases  ohvious  inventions,  there  is  a 
great  deal  of  sound  information  to  he  extracted  from 
the  narrative.  Even  the  early  mythological  portion 
of  it  contains  hints  since  confirmed  hy  discoveries  on 
more  scientific  lines.  Poseidon,  god  of  the  sea,  marries 
Lihya,  and  their  son  Belus  has  two  sons,  Danaus  and 
Aegyptus.  That  is  only  the  early  Greek's  poetical 
way  of  saying  that  if  he  sailed  across  the  Mediterranean 
he  would  come  to  Lihya,  that  is,  Africa,  and  that  there 
he  would  find  countries  closely  connected  with  Bel  or 
Baal,  the  mythical  father  and  god  of  the  East,  and 
among  them  Egypt.  Perhaps  in  those  early  days  he 
rather  confused  the  Egyptians  and  the  Phoenicians. 

The  story  of  Danaus  coming  to  Argos  and  founding 
a  dynasty  there,  from  which  the  Argives  were  sometimes, 
called  Danaans,  suggests  that  there  was  inter- 
course between  Egypt  and  Greece  in  the  early 
days,  and  this  has  been  proved  true  from  extant 
remains  and  even  records,  as  was  shown  in  previous 

chapters. 

From  the  details  given  about  Heracles,  Sthenelus, 
Eurystheus,  and  the  **  Return,"  it  is  clear  that  at  some 
Eurystheus  time  there  was  a  split  in  the  dynasty  ruling 
and  Heracles,  jq  Mycenae  and  Argolis.  The  younger 
branch  (Sthenelus  and  Eurystheus),  with  the  help  of 
powerful  neighbours  (the  Pelopids),  ousted  the  older 
branch  represented  by  Heracles  and  his  descendants. 
Possibly  we  have  here  a  case  somewhat  similar  to  that 
of  our  own  Richard  I.  and  his  younger  brother  John. 


Banaus. 


THE  DAWN   OF  GREEK  HISTORY        151 

Heracles  was  by  nature  and  choice  a  knight-errant 
"crusader,"  eager  for  wrongs  to  right  and  for  perilous 
adventures,  and  in  his  prolonged  absence  from  home, 
his  more  cunning  cousin  quietly  usurped  the  government. 
But  indifference  to  wealth  and  power  are  not  necessarily 
passed  on  from  father  to  son,  and  the  sons  of  Heracles, 
preferring  home  comforts  to  romantic  "  globe-trotting," 
and  perhaps  fired  with  a  filial  desire  to  avenge  their 
father,  decided,  like  Charles  IL,  that  their  travelling 
days  were  over,  and  set  to  work  to  recover  their 
inheritance. 

The  remainder  of  the  story  lays  no  claim  to  any 
very  great  antiquity,  contains  nothing  improbable,  and 
may  very  well  be  accepted  as  sober  history,  oxyius 
The  three-eyed  guide  Oxyius,  who  was  chosen  ®^  ^^^^• 
to  lead  the  invaders  into  the  Peloponnese,  signifies  that 
the  Heracleidae  had  been  taught  by  former  defeats  to 
use  extreme  caution  and  to  reconnoitre  and  explore 
carefully — an  elementary  duty,  no  doubt,  but  one  which 
we,  for  instance,  occasionally  neglected  in  South  Africa. 
We  are  told  Oxyius  lived  in  Aetolia,  but  belonged  to  a 
family  of  Elis.  This  is  important.  The  Dorians  were 
helped  by  Aetolians,  who  had  friendly  relations  with 
Elis  opposite,  and  this  friendship  enabled  them  to  cross 
the  Corinthian  Gulf  at  its  narrowest  point  and  to  obtain 
a  comfortable  foothold  on  the  Peloponnese. 

The   story   of  Hellen   and  bis  sons  and  grandson, 
Aeolus,   Dorus,   and  Ion,  shows,  at  any  rate,  that  the 
Greeks  considered  that  all  Hellenes  belonged   j^^^^j^^^ 
to  one   stock   and  were   all  brothers.     The   all  one 
quarrels  between  Dorians  and  lonians  were 
only  family  quarrels  ;  they  were  all  alike  Hellenes  and 
far   superior  to   the  rest   of  the   world,   who  were  all 
*' Barbarians."       Hellen,      moreover,     was     king     in 
Thessaly;    and  it    is    certain,   as  this  suggests,  that 


152 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


The 

earliest 
colonies. 


Hellenic  civilization   did   sweep   over  Greece  from  the 
north. 

The  account  of  the  migrations  eastward  and 
colonizing  of  the  isles  and  coasts  of  the  Aegean  is  borne 
out  by  well-authenticated  history,  with  the 
possible  exception  of  the  dates,  which  are, 
perhaps,  too  early.  In  more  modern  times 
men  have  been  in  the  habit  of  sailing  west  in  search  of 
new  homes.  The  reason  why  these  early  Greeks  at  first 
sailed  east  is  clear.  All  the  chief  harbours  of  Greece 
are  on  the  east  coast,  and  sailing  east  was  in  quite 
early  times  made  easy  by  the  large  number  of  islands 
in  the  Aegean  Sea,  which  made  it  possible  for  the  timid 
sailor  to  sail  on  and  on  without  ever  losing  sight  of 
land. 

The  colonizing  spirit  was  strong  in  the  Greek.  Its 
effects  showed  themselves  till  a  late  date.  Cnidus, 
Halicarnassus,  Ehodes,  Crete,  Lesbos,  Cyrene, 
Smyrna,  are  among  the  earliest  colonies, 
whose  dates  cannot  be  fixed  with  certainty, 
though  they  were  in  some  way  produced  by 
the  great  conquest  of  the  Greek  mainland.  But  count- 
less others  followed  later.  To  mention  only  a  handful : 
the  shores  of  the  Black  Sea  were  colonized,  and  then 
Khegium  at  the  toe  of  Italy,  Syracuse  and  Messene  in 
Sicily,  Sybaris  and  Croton  and  Tarentum  in  Italy,  all 
in  the  eighth  century  b.c.  By  that  time  evidently  the 
east  was  considered  to  be  filling  up,  and  it  would  have 
been  futile  to  avoid  overcrowding  at  home  only  to 
reproduce  the  same  conditions  in  the  colonies,  so  that 
Seventh  the  west  Came  in  for  its  share  of  attention, 
century.  ^  g^gat  many  more  towns  were  founded 
during  the  seventh  century,  including  a  number  in 
Sicily  and,  at  the  entrance  to  the  Black  Sea,  Chalcedon 
and  Byzantium,  which  a  thousand  years  later  changed 


Later 
colonies 
eighth 
century. 


THE  DAWN  OF  GREEK  HISTORY        153 

its  name  to  Constantinople.  After  600  b.c.  one  or  two 
isolated  colonies  were  founded,  but  the  great  colonizing 
impulse  had  spent  itself,  and  we  may  safely  say  that 
the  great  period  of  colonizatiou  among  the  Greeks  was 
between  900  and  GOO  b.c. 

The  causes  which  sent  men  out  to  seek  new  homes 
were  many.  In  the  earliest  days,  as  we  have  seen,  the 
Dorian  conquest  of  Greece  was  responsible  causes  of 
for  a  considerable  emigration.  Later  the  colonization, 
cause  was  sometimes  overcrowding  at  home,  a  cause 
which  is  still  powerfully  operative  at  the  present  day. 
Sometimes  there  was  internal  discord,  party  struggle, 
perhaps  even  civil  war  or  revolution,  and  the  beaten 
side  found  things  uncomfortable  where  they  were  and 
preferred  the  perils  of  the  sea  and  unknown  lands  and 
nations  to  those  they  ran  from  the  vindictiveness  of 
their  own  kith  and  kin :  so  deeply  do  politics  set 
brothers  at  variance.  At  other  times  there  was  a 
happier  cause,  the  desire  of  adventure,  and  love  of  the 
salt  sea  breeze  and  the  dancing  blue  waves,  and 
curiosity  about  other  men  and  countries.  Occasionally 
there  was  yet  another  factor :  a  love  of  adventure  was 
not  incompatible  with  shrewd  practical  sense,  and  a 
man  might  combine  pleasure  with  business  and  pay  his 
travelling  expenses  and  make  a  bit  besides  by  oversea 
trade  which  would  be  helped  by  distant  outposts. 

However    they  arose,   whether  from  one   of  these 
causes    or    several  of  them   combined,   these   colonies 
became  in  time  exceedingly  prosperous,  being 
founded   when   there   was    plenty    of    room   of  the 
in  the  Mediterranean  world,  and  so  built  in    ^'o^o^^®^- 
the  best  positions.     In   no  long  time  the  lonians  and 
other  Greeks  on  the  Asiatic  coast  were  noted  for  their 
wealth,  and  also  their  luxury  and  indolence ;    while  in 
the  west  the  colonies  on  the  Italian  and  Sicilian  coasts 


154 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


grew  so  much  in  wealth  and  power  and  reputation  that 
they  were  collectively  called  ''Great  Greece,"  to 
distinguish  them  from  the  mother-country  which  they 
had  eclipsed.  There  was,  unfortunately,  a  dark  side  to 
the  picture.  Wealth  and  power,  as  they  so  often  do, 
bred  jealousy  and  covetousness,  and  also  idleness  and 
effeminacy.  Thus  in  South  Italy  the  famous  quarrel 
between  the  neighbours  Croton  and  Sybaris  led  to  the 
complete  extinction  of  the  latter,  whose  memory  only 
survives  in  a  disparaging  term  for  a  lover  of  ''creature 
comforts."  And  this  rancorous  animosity  was  no  un- 
usual phenomenon. 


CHAPTER  X 

WESTWARD   HO  ! 


^Meanwhile  the  world  around  had  not  been  standing 
still.  Greece  as  yet  was  only  one  small  country 
between  the  Aegean  and  the  Ionian  seas.  To  civilisation 
right  and  left  of  her,  men  ate  and  drank  and  in  the 
loved  and  fought,  and  empires  rose  and  fell.  ^®^^* 
The  imaginative  Greek,  gazing  into  the  West,  might 
wonder  what  lands  and  seas  lay  beyond  the  crimson 
and  gold  of  the  setting  sun,  but,  before  he  ventured  to 
gratify  his  curiosity,  two  cities,  north  and  south  of  the 
"wine-dark"  sea,  had  arisen,  which  were  one  day 
destined  to  grapple  in  a  deadly  struggle  for  the  empire 
of  the  Mediterranean. 

The  traditional  date  for  the  foundation  of  Rome  is 
753  B.C.,  and  for  that  of  Carthage  about   a   century 
earlier,  more  or  less.     But,  especially  in  the   Qarthage 
latter  case,  it  is  impossible  to  be  exact,  nor   and  Eome 
does  it  greatly  matter.     It  is  sufficient  for   ^°^°*®'^' 
our  purpose  that  they  were  both  founded  after  the  great 
Dorian  conquest  of  the   Peloponnese,  and  before  the 
Greek  world  had  entered  on  the  stage  of  government  by 
Tyrants  (700-500  b.c).     Kings  of  the  Homeric  type  or 
Aristocracies  were  still  the  fashion. 

Where  the  Greek  had  been  content  to  wonder  and 
dream  dreams,  the  Phoenician  had  explored.  The 
That  Land  of  the  Evening  Star,  which  the  Phoenicians, 
poetic   soul  of  the  former  had   assigned   to  the   Isles 

155 


156 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


of  the  Blest,  which  he  hoped,  if  he  were  lucky,  to  visit 
some  day  after  death,  the  more  practical  businesslike 
spirit  of  the  latter  had  turned  to  good  account,  creating 
a  tangible  Eldorado,  where  the  ''  (xolden  Apples"  were 
good  gold  pieces  for  the  shrewd  merchant  on  this  side 
of    the    grave.       The    Phoenicians    may    have    come 
originally  from  Soutliern  Arabia  or  the  opposite  coast 
of  East  Africa,  but,  when  they  first  appear  in  history, 
their    home  is   on  the    Syrian  coast,  just    north    of 
Palestine.     All  their  important  cities,  of  which  the  two 
greatest  were  Tyre  and  Sidon,  were  comprised  within  a 
strip  of  coast  not  more  than  thirty  miles  long  by  a  mile 
or  two  wide,  and  the  extreme  limits  of  the  land  under 
their  sway  never  exceeded  a  hundred  miles  by  twelve. 
Small  as  Greece  and  Palestine  were  in  comparison  of 
their    importance    to    the   world,    Phoenicia   was    im- 
measurably smaller,  and  though  not,  perhaps,  equally 
gifted  mentally  and  morally  with  the  Greeks  or  Jews, 
its  inhabitants  were  certainly  the  most  enterprising  and 
ubiquitous  mariners  of  antiquity,  and  were  in  all  likeli- 
hood the  means  of  spreading  a  written  alphabet  over 
Eastern  Europe.     Phoenicians  sailed  round  the  Cape  of 
Good    Hope   two   thousand   years    before   its   vaunted 
discovery  by  Vasco  da  Gama,  and  Phoenicians  sailed, 
not  only  to  Spain,  but  through  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar 
out  into  the  Atlantic,  northwards  to  the  Scilly  Isles  to 
fetch  tin,  and  into  the  Baltic  for  amber;   and  further 
still,  perhaps — 

.  .  .  where  the  Northern  ocean,  in  vast  whirls, 
Boils  round  the  naked  melancholy  isles 
Of  furthest  Thule,  and  the  Atlantic  surge 
Pours  in  among  the  stormy  Hebrides.* 

On  looking  at  a  map  of  Phoenicia,  and  the  tracts 

♦  Thomson,  "  Autump." 


WESTWARD  HO! 


157 


Dido. 


colonized  by  Phoenicians — Carthage,  Sicily,  Sardinia, 
and  Spain — one  cannot  help  being  reminded   comparison 
of  Holland  and  its  great  possessions  in  the   ^^^^ 
East  Indies  (Java,  Sumatra,  etc.).      In  both    and*^ 
cases  the  mother-country  is  a  narrow  strip  of    ^^g^a^^. 
land  between  a  great  empire  and  the  deep  sea,  and  the 
colonies  surpass  it  immensely  in  size.     The  proportion 
of  Holland  to  its  possessions  is  about  one  to  sixty ;   in 
the  case  of  our  own  empire,  the  British  Isles  are  to  the 
rest  as  one  to  ninety;  but  the  disproportion  between 
the  diminutive  Phoenicia  and  the  Empire  of  Carthage 
was  certainly  far  greater. 

Carthage,  as  is  well  known,  was  destroyed  by  the 
Romans  so  completely  that  practically  nothing  has 
come  down  in  the  way  of  monuments  or  in- 
scriptions which  might  enlighten  us  on  its 
early  history.  Tradition  said  that  it  was  founded  by 
the  widowed  princess  Dido,  also  called  Elissa.  Dido 
was  the  daughter  of  Belus,  King  of  Tyre,  and  was 
married  to  her  wealthy  uncle,  Acerbas.  Her  brother 
Pygmalion  discovered  that  this  relative  was  possessed 
of  immense  wealth,  and,  being  of  a  jealous  and  un- 
scrupulous disposition,  determined  to  sacrifice  uncle 
and  sister  to  his  greed  of  gold.  He  did  not  even  stick 
at  murder  and  sacrilege,  and,  discovering  the  foul  deed, 
the  hapless  Dido  gathered  round  her  a  few  faithful 
friends  and  all  the  wealth  she  could  secure  and  stow  in 
her  ships.  *'  Westward  ho  I  "  was  the  cry.  Steadily  into 
the  sunset  she  sailed,  and  the  fruit  of  that  sudden 
flight  was  Carthage.  Vergil  calls  Dido's  murdered 
husband  Sychaeus,  and  tells  the  story  thus  * — 

Phoenician  Dido  rules  the  growing  state  ; 

Who  fled  from  Tyre,  to  shun  her  brother's  hate. 


♦  Vergil,  "  Aenoid,"  i.  340-3G8  (Dryden's  translation). 


158  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

Great  were  her  wrongs,  her  story  full  of  fate, 
Which  I  will  sum  in  short.     Sychaeus,  known 
For  wealth,  and  brother  to  the  Punic  throne, 
Possessed  fair  Dido's  bed  ;  and  either  heart  * 
At  once  was  wounded  with  an  equal  dart. 
Her  father  gave  her,  yet  a  spotless  maid  : 
Pygmalion  then  the  Tyrian  sceptre  swayed— 
One  who  contemned  divine  and  human  laws ; 
Then  strife  ensued,  and  cursed  gold  the  cause. 
The  monarch,  blinded  with  desire  of  wealth. 
With  steel  invades  his  brother's  life  by  stealth ; 
Before  the  sacred  altar  made  him  bleed, 
And  long  from  her  concealed  the  cruel  deed. 
Some  tale,  some  new  pretence,  he  daily  coined 
To  soothe  his  sister  and  delude  her  mind. 

At  length,  in  dead  of  night,  the  ghost  appears 
Of  her  unhappy  lord  :  the  spectre  stares. 
And,  with  erected  eyes,  his  bloody  bosom  bares. 
The  cruel  altars,  and  his  fate,  he  tells, 
And  the  dire  secret  of  his  house  reveals ; 
Then  warns  the  widow,  with  her  household  gods, 
To  seek  a  refuge  in  remote  abodes. 
Last,  to  support  her  in  so  long  a  way. 
He  shows  her  where  his  hidden  treasures  lay. 
Admonished  thus,  and  seized  with  mortal  fright. 
The  queen  provides  companions  of  her  flight : 
They  meet,  and  all  combine  to  leave  the  state. 
Who  hate  the  tyrant,  or  who  fear  his  hate. 
They  seize  a  fleet,  which  ready  rigged  they  find  ; 
Nor  is  Pygmalion's  treasure  left  behind. 
The  vessels,  heavy  laden,  put  to  sea 
With  prosperous  winds  :  a  woman  leads  the  way. 
I  know  not  if  by  stress  of  weather  driven, 
Or  was  their  fatal  course  disposed  by  Heaven  : 
At  last  they  landed,  where,  from  far,  your  eyes 
May  view  the  turrets  of  new  Carthage  rise : 
There  bought  a  space  of  ground,  which  (Byrsa  called 
From  the  bull's  hide)  they  first  enclosed  and  walled. 

The  rest  of  the  story  is  wonderfully  told  by  the  same 
Dido  P°^*'  i^  that  unsurpassable  Fourth  Book  of 

Aeneas         ^^^^  "  ^^^^^^^''^    ^^^^  ^^  beloved  and  sought  in 

marriage  by  larbas,  a  Gaetulian  king;  but 

she  has  vowed  eternal  fideUty  to  her  murdered  husband 


WESTWARD  HO! 


159 


Sychaeus.  and  rejects  all  his  offers.  In  the  course  of 
his  wanderings  after  the  fall  of  Troy,  Aeneas  lands 
close  to  the  newly-founded  city,  and  the  queen  becomes 
desperately  enamoured  of  him.  But  Aeneas  is  hurried 
on  to  his  destined  home  in  Italy  by  a  warning  from 
Heaven,  and  Dido,  broken-hearted  and  seeing  nothing 
in  store  for  her  but  capture  by  the  despised  larbas, 
destroys  herself.* 

But  furious  Dido,  with  dark  thoughts  involved, 
Shook  at  the  mighty  mischief  she  resolved. 
With  livid  spots  distinguished  was  her  face  ; 
Red  were  her  rolling  eyes,  and  discomposed  her  pace  ; 
Ghastly  she  gazed  ;  with  pain  she  drew  her  breath  ; 
And  nature  shivered  at  approaching  death. 

Dido  unsheaths  Aeneas'  sword,  and  as  her  eye  lights 
on  the  Trojan  garments  left  behind,  she  exclaims  : 

•*  Dear  pledges  of  my  love,  while  Heaven  so  pleased, 
Receive  a  soul,  of  mortal  anguish  cased. 
My  fatal  course  is  finished  ;  and  I  go, 
A  glorious  name,  among  the  ghosts  below. 
A  lofty  city  by  my  hands  is  raised, 
Pygmalion  punished  and  my  lord  appeased. 
What  could  my  fortune  have  afforded  more, 
Had  the  false  Trojan  never  touched  my  shore  ?  " 
Then  kissed  the  couch  ;  and  '*  Must  I  die,"  she  said, 
**  And  unrcvenged  ?  'tis  doubly  to  be  dead  1 
Yet  e'eu  this  death  with  pleasure  I  receive : 
On  any  terms,  'tis  better  than  to  live. 
These  flames,  from  far,  may  the  false  Trojan  view ; 
These  boding  omens  his  base  flight  pursue  !  " 
She  said,  and  struck  ;  deep  entered  in  her  side 
The  piercing  steel,  with  reeking  purple  dyed. 
Her  sad  attendants  saw  the  deadly  stroke, 
And  with  loud  cries  the  sounding  palace  shook. 
Distracted,  from  the  fatal  sight  they  fled, 
And  through  the  town  the  dismal  rumour  spread. 

For  the  purposes  of  his  national  epic,  Vergil  has 

*  "  Aeneid,"  iv.  642-666  (Dryden). 


160 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


done  violence   to  chronology.     He  could  not,  being  a 
Ficti  n         ^^^*'  resist  the  dramatic  opportunities  of  a 
and  fact.       meeting  between  Dido  and  the  national  hero. 
It  is  agreed  that  Carthage  was  founded  before 
Rome,  but  it  seems  unlikely  that  it  was  so  early  as  the 
*'  Aeneid  "  suggests.  Traditions  vary,  but  none  places  the 
foundation  earlier  than  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century 
B.C.,  and  old  traditions  never  err  on  the  side  of  modera- 
tion.    Their  dates  are  much  more  likely  to  be  too  early 
than  too  late.     Vergil,  again,  has   taken   the  current 
stories  about  Dido,  Pygmalion,  larbas,  and  Aeneas,  and 
combined  them,  and  his  poetic  genius  has  enriched  and 
beautified  them.     Certainty  in  such  a  matter  is  out  of 
the  question.     We  may  conjecture  that  at  one  time  the 
reigning  family  of  Tyre  was  disturbed  by  a  plot,  which 
resulted  in  a  group  of  exiles  seeking  a  new  home  across 
the   seas;    or   perhaps   it   w^as   an  emigration   due   to 
pressure  from  the  growing  power  of  Assyria.     In  one 
detail,  at  any  rate,  we  can  be  almost  sure  of  being  right 
in  correcting  the  tradition.     The  name  "  Byrsa,'''  given 
to  the  Carthaginian  citadel,  had  probably  no  connexion 
with  an  ox-hide,  but  was  a  corruption  of  the  Semitic 
**Bozra,"   meaning   **  a  fort."      The  corruption   once 
made,  the  picturesque  tale  was  invented  to  explain  it. 
That  the  language  of  Carthage  was  Semitic  and  closely 
akin   to  Hebrew  appears   in   the   name   for   the   chief 
magistrates,  '*  Suffetes,*'  which  is  simply  the  Hebrew 
*'  Shofetim"  (translated  "  Judges  "  in  our  Bible),  and  the 
term   **magalia*'  (cottages),  which  recalls  the  Hebrew 
**  magurim,"  "  gardens  or  suburbs." 

The  Phoenicians  were  by  nature  neither  soldiers,  nor 
Carthage  a  ^rtists,  nor  poets.  They  were  content  with 
commercial  a  narrow  strip  of  the  Syrian  coast,  which 
"  ^'  they  never  tried  to  enlarge,  and  their  art  and 

literature  have  entirely  vanished,  and  probably  never 


WESTWARD  HO! 


161 


had  any  real  existence.     Their  province  was  business. 
They  were  shopkeepers  in  the  soul.     At  first  Carthage 
was  simply  like  any  of  their  many  ''  branch  establish- 
ments,"   which    were    scattered    round    the    Western 
Mediterranean  in  likely  spots  to  capture  trade.      For  a 
long  time  the  city  retained  this  character,  even  after  it 
had  grown  large  and  rich.    But  its  increasing  wealth 
made  it  a  tempting  prize.     Covetous  eyes  were  watch- 
ing.    In  self-defence  Carthage  raised  naval  and  military 
forces,  and  having  them,  used  them.     **  L'appetit  vient 
en  mangeant,"  is  a  proverb  which  explains  the  growth 
of  many  an  empire.     Bit  by  bit,  the  once  peaceful  and 
purely  commercial  town  became  the  splendid   capital 
of  an  extensive  empire,  which  eventually  gave  Rome 
a  very  good  fight,  prolonged  through  three  great  wars 
extending  with   intervals   over    more   than  a   century 
(264-140  B.C.),  for  the  sovereignty  of  the  Mediterranean. 
For  the  early  history  of  Rome,  the  other  great  city 
of  the  West,  there  is  abundance  of  material.     Here,  of 
course,  as  everywhere  else,  we  are  met  first  Rome:  early 
by  the  usual  mass  of  legend  and  tradition,  legends. 
Every  child  knows  the  story  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  and 
has  at  least  heard  of  the  seven  kings  of  the  eternal  City 
of  Seven  Hills.     But  such  an  origin  did  not  satisfy  the 
patriotic  Roman.     To  please  him,  the  national  pedigree 
must  start  very  much  further  back.     Romulus  might  be 
the  founder  of  Rome,  but  the  family  into  which  he  was 
born  had  long  held  sovereign  sway,  and  was  descended 
from  no  less  a  person  than  Aeneas,  the  cousin  of  Hector, 
of   the    royal    and    ancient    line    of   renowned    Troy. 
Vergil,    at    the    request    of    the    Emperor    Augustus, 
composed  the  "Aeneid  "  as  a  great  national  epic,  in  which 
he  traced  the  beginnings  of  the  world-conquering  race 
from   the   fall   of   Troy  and  tne  landing  and  warlike 
exploits  of  Aeneas  in  Latium. 


M 


162 


THE   ANCIENT   WORLD 


l^ 


Aeneas 
escapes 


Aeneas  played  only  a  small  part  in  the  ten-years* 

siege  of  Troy,  in  which  he  was  completely  overshadowed 

by    his    greater    cousin   Hector.     His   only 

striking  adventure  that  recurs  to  the  memory 
from  Troy.     ^^^^  j^-^  ^^^^^  ^^-^j^  ^^^  q^^^^  Diomede,  who 

wounded  him,  and  from  whom  he  was  rescued  in  the 
very  nick  of  time  by  his  mother  Aphrodite.  According 
to  the  tradition  followed  by  Vergil,  Aeneas,  at  the  cap- 
ture of  Troy  through  the  stratagem  of  the  Wooden 
Horse,  offered  a  determined  resistance.  It  was,  however, 
all  in  vain,  and  he  made  his  way  out  of  the  burning 
ruins,  carrying  his  aged  father  Anchises  on  his  shouders, 
and  leading  his  little  son  Ascanius  (or  lulus)  by  the 
band.  His  wife  Creusa  perished  before  they  could 
reach  a  place  of  safety,  and  Aeneas  and  a  little  band  of 
faithful  exiles  set  sail  into  the  West.  After  adventures 
in  Thrace,  Epirus,  and  Sicily,  they  were  driven  by 
storms  to  the  African  coast,  where  Dido  was  building 
Carthage.  The  tragedy  of  the  love  and  suicide  of  the 
ill-fated  queen  forms  the  subject  of  the  supreme  book 
of  the  whole  poem  (book  iv.). 

Leaving  Dido,  Aeneas  at  last  reached  Italy,  the 
**  promised  land,"  where  a  new  and  greater  Troy  was  to 
Aeneas  arise  and  some  day  turn  the  tables  on  the 

reaohes  GKultaut  Achaeaus.  After  a  thrilling  episode 
^^^^y-  at  Lake  Avernus,  where  he  conversed  with 

the  souls  of  the  great  departed,  as  Odysseus  does  in 
Homer's  poem,  and  also  saw  in  a  vision  the  illustrious 
sons  of  Eome  yet  unborn,  Aeneas  reached  the  Tiber.  At 
the  foot  of  the  Palatine  hill,  afterwards  the  heart  of  the 
Capital  of  the  World,  he  found  the  Arcadian  prince 
Evander  with  his  young  son  Pallas,  who  joined  him  and 
fell  in  battle  for  him  against  the  Rutulians.  Aeneas 
was  Well  received  by  Latinus,  the  old  King  of  Laurentum, 
and  promised  the  hand  of  his  daughter  Lavinia.     But 


WESTWARD  HO! 


163 


unfortunately  the  girl  was  already  betrothed  to  Turnus, 
the  chief  of  the  warlike  Rutulians,  and  this  Tumus  the 
flagrant  breach  of  promise  was  the  spark  ^^tuUan. 
which  set  all  Central  Italy  in  a  blaze.  Turnus,  with 
whom  all  sympathized,  including  Queen  Amata  and  the 
Princess  Lavinia  herself,  roused  his  warlike  clan  and 
was  joined  by  the  Etruscans  under  Mezentius.  The 
desperate  conflict,  diversified  by  numerous  thrilling  and 
romantic  episodes  and  *'  hair-breadth  'scapes,"  ended  in 
a  single  combat  to  the  death  between  the  two  great 
rivals.     Thus  two  bulls  meet  in  deadly  conflict :  * 

With  horns  adverse  they  meet ;  the  keeper  flies  ; 

Mute  stands  the  herd  ;  the  heifers  roll  their  eyes, 

And  wait  the  event  .... 

With  rage  of  love  the  jealous  rivals  burn, 

And  push  for  push,  and  wound  for  wound,  return  ; 

Their  dewlaps  gored,  their  sides  are  laved  in  blood ; 

Loud  cries  and  roaring  sounds  rebellow  through  the  wood. 

Such  was  the  combat  on  the  listed  ground  ; 

So  clash  their  swords,  and  so  their  shields  resound. 

Amid  alternations  of  breathless  suspense  and  frenzied 
applause,  the  equal  fight  rages,  and  neither  gains  an 
advantage.  But  Destiny  is  not  mocked.  By  super- 
natural intervention,  so  often  invoked  by  Homer  and 
other  epic  poets,  Turnus  is  worsted.t 

Now  low  on  earth  the  lofty  chief  is  laid. 
With  eyes  cast  upwards,  and  with  arms  displayed, 
And,  recreant,  thus  to  the  proud  victor  prayed  : 
"  I  know  my  death  deserved,  nor  hope  to  live  : 
Use  what  the  gods  and  thy  good  fortune  give. 
•  .  t  •  . 

Give  to  my  friends  my  body  void  of  breath  I 
The  Latian  chiefs  have  seen  me  beg  my  life  ; 
Thine  is  the  conquest,  thine  the  royal  wife ; 
Against  a  yielded  man,  'tis  mean  ignoble  strife." 
In  deep  suspense  the  Trojan  seemed  to  stand, 
And,  just  prepared  to  strike,  repressed  his  hand. 


"Aeneid,"xii.  715-726. 


t  "Aeneid,"xii.  930-952. 


164  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

He  rolled  his  oyes,  and  every  moment  felt 

His  manly  soul  with  more  compassion  melt ; 

When,  casting  down  a  casual  glance,  he  spied 

The  golden  belt  that  glittered  on  his  side, 

The  fatal  spoil  which  haughty  Turnus  tore 

From  dying  Pallas,  and  in  triumph  wore. 

Then,  roused  anew  to  wrath,  he  loudly  cries 

(Flames,  while  he  spoke,  came  flashing  from  his  oyes) 

*'  Traitor  I  dost  thou,  dost  thou  to  grace  pretend, 

Clad  as  thou  art,  in  trophies  of  my  friend  ? 

To  his  sad  soul  a  grateful  offering  go  ! 

'Tis  Pallas,  Pallas  gives  this  deadly  blow." 

He  raised  his  arm  aloft,  and,  at  the  word, 

Deep  in  his  bosom  drove  the  shining  sword. 

The  streaming  blood  distaincd  his  arms  around  ; 

And  the  disdainful  soul  came  rushing  through  the  wound. 

Aeneas  is  left  in  possession,  not  of  the  reader's 
sympathy,   which   all   goes   out   to   his   victim,  but  of 

Lavinium  *^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  Lady  Lavinia.  On  the 
death  of  her  father  Latinus,  Aeneas  becomes 
King  of  the  Latins  and  founds  a  new  capital, 
called  Lavinium  in  his  wife's  honour,  but  not  long 
after  is  killed  in  battle  by  the  irreconcilable  followers 
of  Turnus,  those  **  Jacobites"  who  resented  the  interloping 
stranger.  His  son  Ascanius,  or  lulus,  founded  Alba 
Longa,  the  Long  White  City,  and  was  followed  on  the 
throne  there  by  a  long  line  of  kings,  till,  in  the  fulness  of 
time,  the  sceptre  passed  to  Numitor. 

Now  Numitor  was  a  quiet  man  of  retiring  and  con- 
templative habits,  but  his  younger  brother,  Amulius,  was 
Romulus  ^^  different  stuff*.  He  deposed  Numitor,  killed 
and  his  sons,  and  made  his  only  daughter  Rhea 

emus.  Silvia  a  "Vestal  Virgin,"  which  was  equiva- 
lent to  shutting  her  up  in  a  nunnery  under  perpetual 
vows.  When  Mars,  the  god  of  war,  himself  visited 
her  and  she  gave  birth  to  twin  sons,  Amulius  caused 
her  to  be  buried  alive  and  the  babies  to  be  drowned  in 
the  Tiber.     But  Nemesis  was   waiting  for  the   crime- 


and  Alba 
Longa. 


WESTWARD  HO! 


165 


stained  uncle.  The  little  boys  were  left  high  and  dry 
by  the  receding  waters,  suckled  by  a  philanthropic  she- 
wolf,  taken  home  and  brought  up  by  a  shepherd,  and  in 
due  time  recognized  by  their  grandfather  Numitor.  A 
plot  was  quickly  hatched,  and  Amulius  paid  the  price  of 
his  villainy.  Then  followed  the  foundation  of  Rome, 
Roma  Quadrata  (Four-square  Rome),  on  the  Palatine 
Hill.  The  story  of  Romulus  and  Remus,  the  six 
vultures  and  the  twelve,  the  thoughtless  leap  over  the 
rising  wall,  and  the  repetition  of  the  tragedy  of  Cain 
and  Abel,  is  too  familiar  to  bear  repetition. 

The  new  city  followed  the  prevailing   fashion   and 
was  ruled  by  kings.     First  came  Romulus,  the  founder. 
Having  built  the  walls,  he  must  have  men  to   Home 
defend  them.     So  he  built  a  kind  of ''city  of   ^"oiinded. 
refuge  "  on  the  Capitoline  Hill  close  by,  just  the  other 
side   of  a  marsh,   and   advertised  it   as    a    home   for 
anybody   who   found   things   uncomfortable   where    he 
was.     So  long    as    the  applicant   had   a   strong  and 
willing  pair   of  hands,  no   questions  w^ould  be  asked. 
The  Capitoline  became  instantly  and  immensely  popu- 
lar, and  its  denizens  must  have  included  more  than  one 
gentleman  who  did  not  boast  about  the  past.     Some,  no 
doubt,  were  in  trouble  through  no  fault  of  their  own. 
Then,  wanting  wives  for  his  citizens,  Romulus  kidnapped 
them  from  the  Sabines.     The  result  was  a 
war,  naturally,  which  ended,  however,  in  the 
Sabines  and  Romans  going  into  partnership.     Together 
they  enlarged  the  city,  and  Romulus  shared  the  govern- 
ment with   a  Sabine  king.     Romulus  was  carried  up 
into   Heaven  and   became  the  god  Quirinus,  and  was 
succeeded  by  Numa  Pompilius,  a  Sabine,  who  was   a 
lover  of  peace  and  paid  much  attention  to  religion  and 
ceremonial.     But  a  young  city  has  often  to  fight  for  its 
existence,  and  Rome  found  a  pair  of  strong  arms  in 


The  Sabines. 


166 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


her  third  king,  Tulhis  Hostilius,  whose  reign  was 
marked  by  the  destruction  of  Alba  Longa,  the  ancient 
The  Latin  metropolis  and  head  of  the  Latin  League, 
League.  of  which  Home  now  became  the  acknow- 
ledged capital.  His  successor,  Ancus  Martins,  again  a 
Sabine,  further  strengthened  the  city,  and  fortified  the 
Janiculum  Hill  the  other  side  of  the  Tiber,  which  he 
joined  to  Rome  by  a  wooden  bridge. 

The  fame  of  the  city  grew,  and  at  the  close  of  the 
seventh  century  (616  b.c),  while  Periander  was  Tyrant 
Tarquinius  at  Corinth  and  Cylon  tried  to  be  so  at  Athens, 
J'^the^  attracted  a  Greek-Etruscan  adventurer  from 
Elder").  Tarquinii,  called  Lucumo,  the  son  of  an  exile 
from  Corinth.  Like  most  Greeks,  he  was  clever  and 
had  a  ready  tongue,  and,  though  a  stranger  and  soldier 
of  fortune,  he  so  completely  *'  got  round  "  the  old  king 
Ancus  Martins,  that  he  was  appointed  guardian  of  the 
two  young  princes.  But,  no  sooner  was  the  king  in  his 
grave,  than  Lucumo  of  Tarquinii,  who  had  assumed  the 
more  Roman- sounding  name  of  Lucius  Tarquinius, 
persuaded  the  people  to  make  him  king.  No  doubt  his 
father  and  perhaps  he  himself  had  seen  Periander  at 
work  at  Corinth  and  had  made  notes  for  possible  use. 
Tarquin  was  not  very  unlike  the  Greek  *'  Tyrants." 
He  was  their  contemporary;  he  got  the  throne,  like 
them,  by  usurpation;  and  he  was,  like  them,  a  great 
builder.  But  he  had  a  council  of  advisers,  the  Senate, 
and  did  not  rule  autocratically. 

He  was  followed  by  his  son-in-law,  Servius  Tullius 
(578  B.c ),  who  made  himself  famous  for  all  time  by 
Servius  erecting  a  complete  circuit  of  fortifications, 
Tullius.  mounds  and  walls  and  ditches,  enclosing 
the  seven  hills,  an  area  which  proved  sufficient  for 
Rome  right  through  to  the  time  of  the  establishment 
of  the  empire.    He  also  was  responsible  for  the  Servian 


WESTWARD  HO! 


167 


Constitution,  by  which  the  whole  population  were  divided 
into  classes,  according  to  their  wealth.  It  was  a  Timo- 
cracy,  resembling  the  arrangement  which  Solon  carried 
out  at  Athens  only  a  few  years  before.  Italy  is  not  so 
very  far  removed  from  Greece.  Long  before  this  time 
Greeks  had  colonized  Sicily  and  many  places  in  Italy  as 
near  Rome  as  Cumac  and  Naples.  May  not  Servius 
Tullius,  in  thinking  out  his  re-organization  of  Rome,  have 
taken  many  a  useful  hint  from  the  achievement  of  the 
great  Solon  ?  Tarquin  the  Elder  is  himself  a  reminder 
of  the  free  intercourse  which  existed  in  those  remote 
times  between  nations  surrounding  the  Mediterranean. 
His  father  was  a  Greek,  his  wife  was  an  Etruscan,  and 
he  became  King  of  Rome. 

The  good  King  Servius  was  followed  by  the  tyrant 
Tarquinius  Superbus,  Tarquin  the  Proud  (534  e.g.), 
whose    evil    deeds   were    the   cause    of   the  .  . 

expulsion  of  the  kings  and  establishment  of  superbus 
a  Republic  in  Rome.  This  Tarquin  was  a  (^'  ^^® , 
fairly  exact  counterpart  of  a  Greek  Tyrant, 
in  the  leadership  of  a  discontented  party  which  he 
assumed  and  the  violence  which  he  employed  in  his 
usurpation  of  power,  and  also  resembled  some  of  his 
Greek  confreres  in  the  uncomfortable  fact  of  his 
forcible  ejection  from  the  state.  He  began  to  attract 
attention  by  murdering  his  wife  and  marrying  her 
sister,  Tullia,  who  had  married  his  brother  but  had 
murdered  her  husband  at  his  instigation.  A  pretty 
beginning !  Nor  was  this  all.  His  wife  was  the  king's 
daughter,  and  yet  this  well-matched  satanical  pair 
murdered  the  old  man,  Tullia  even  driving  her  chariot 
over  her  father's  dead  body  to  the  Senate-house  to 
congratulate  her  murderer-husband,  who  had  had 
himself  proclaimed  king.  The  proverb  "  Like  father, 
like  son,"  though  often  untrue,  justified  itself  on  this 


168 


THE   ANCIENT  WOELD 


stories 
historical  ? 


occasion.     It  was  hardly  to  be  expected  that  the  off- 
spring of  this  pair  should  be  saints. 

Tlie  reckless  immorality  of  the  royal  princes  lashed 
the  general  indignation  into  fury,  and  the  whole  brood 
The  Tarquins  of  Tarquin  left  Piome  somewhat  hurriedly. 
expeUed.  rpj^^^  ^^^^^^  returned.  Not  that  they  did  not 
try,  but  the  blood  of  Rome  was  up.  Rome,  like  Athens, 
and  in  the  selfsame  year,  had  shaken  off  her  Tyrant 
and  started  on  a  career  of  increasing  liberty  and  self- 
development. 

Thus,  in  prose  and  verse,  runs  the  ''authorized 
text"  of  the  early  history  of  Rome.  And  a  pretty 
How  far  ^^o^gh  story  it  makes.  But,  such  is  our 
are  these  modern  mind,  we  are  once  more  left  wonder- 
ing how  much  of  it  all  is  what  we  call 
**  historical."  It  must  not  be  forgotten  that 
the  earliest  historians  of  Rome  did  not  write  their 
histories  till  the  third  century  B.C.,  that  is  to  say,  five 
centuries  after  the  accepted  date  of  the  foundation  of 
the  city ;  and  that  all  the  state  records  relating  to  the 
early  times  were  destroyed  in  the  sack  of  the  city  by 
the  Gauls  in  390  b.c.  The  received  account,  therefore,  is 
based  entirely  on  tradition.  Now  nobody  can  say  that 
it  is  impossible  that  any  Trojans  sailed  from  Troy  to 
Italy  as  Aeneas  is  reputed  to  have  done.  But  the 
traditions  themselves,  like  the  proverbial  doctors,  dis- 
agree. Most  accounts  had  it  that  Aeneas  stayed  at 
home  and  reigned  over  a  restored  remnant  of  Troy,  a 
shadow  of  its  ancient  self. 

What,  then,  are  we  to  believe  ?  Fortunately,  the 
study  of  language  and  modern  discoveries  afford  us 
Evidence  surer  ground.  It  is  perfectly  certain  that  the 
and*S!^*^^  people  who  spoke  Latin  were  closely  related 
coveries.  to  the  Greeks:  the  languages  prove  it. 
Greeks  and  Latins  alike  belonged  to  the  great  Aryan 


WESTWARD  HO! 


1C)9 


race,  which  from  the  steppes  by  the  Caspian  Sea 
had  migrated  east  and  west,  into  India  and  Europe. 
We  have  already  seen  how  the  Aegean  world,  The 
the  empire  of  Cnossus,  was  overwhelmed  by  Aryans. 
a  great  invasion,  probably  Hellenic,  about  1400  b.c, 
followed  about  1100  b.c.  by  ]he  famous  Dorian  conquest, 
which  marked  the  beginning  of  really  Hellenic  history. 
It  is  probable  that  on  either  the  first  or  the  second  of 
those  occasions  another  wave  of  Aryans  moved  on  further 
west  and  swarmed  down  over  the  Italian  peninsula. 
Besides  the  general  similarity  of  the  languages  and 
institutions  of  Greece  and  Italy,  there  is  a  curiously 
Greek  ring  about  names  like  Rome,  Romulus,  Numa, 
and  Numitor. 

To  take  the  stories  -in  detail:  the  exposure  and 
rescue  of  Romulus,  the  founder,  is  interesting  in  its 
resemblance  to  the  story  of  Sargon  I,  or  position  of 
Sargina,  the  first  known  King  of  Accad  ^^^^e. 
(Mesopotamia),  and  to  the  account  in  Exodus  of  the 
infancy  of  Moses.  Amulius  reigns  in  Alba  Longa.  We 
may  rest  assured  that  Rome,  by  whomsoever  founded, 
was  indeed  a  colony  from  that  earlier  city.  The 
Palatine  Hill,  with  its  flat  rectangular  top,  and  its 
steep  sides  protected  by  a  river,  a  stream,  and  marshes, 
was  an  eminently  suitable  site  for  a  settlement.  It 
was  far  enough  from  the  sea  to  be  safe  from  passing 
pirates,  and  not  too  far  for  vessels  of  moderate  draught 
to  be  able  to  sail  to  it,  and  it  was  placed  at  a  point 
where  an  island  lay  in  the  river  like  a  stepping-stone, 
making  two  streams  easier  to  bridge.  One  or  two  facts 
are  quite  clear  from  the  traditional  account. 

The  Sabines  evidently  joined  the  original  founders. 
Quirites,    Quirinus,   and   Quirinalis,   are   all    sabine 
Sabine  words,  and  point  to  an  early  compro-    alliance, 
mise  and  partnership  between  the  two  tribes.     Also,  a 


170 


THE   ANCIENT  WOULD 


I 

n 


Conclasion. 


little  later,  there  must  have  been  penetration,  either 
forcible  or  peaceable,  by  Etruscans.  "Lucumo**  is  an 
The  Etruscan  word,  probably  meaning  "  a  noble  " ; 

Etruscans,  ^^q  name  **  Luceres,'*  one  of  the  three  original 
tribes  of  Kome,  seems  connected  with  it.  Many  of  the 
old  religious  and  other  customs  of  Rome  can  be  traced 
to  Etruria. 

We  may  conclude  that  the  Aryan  invaders 
conquered  Italy  and  broke  up,  through  geographical 
causes,  into  several  distinct  groups,  each 
developing  along  its  own  lines  for  a  time  in 
customs  and  language.  Subsequently,  at  some  un- 
known date,  but  probably,  as  the  tradition  holds,  in  the 
middle  of  the  eighth  century  b.c,  three  Italian  groups 
— Latins,  Sabines,  and  Etruscans — combined  for  mutual 
protection  and  commercial  advantage,  and  planted  a 
settlement  at  a  suitable  spot  on  a  navigable  and 
bridgeable  river  at  the  junction  of  the  three  territories, 
to  be  a  trading  depot  and  central  exchange.  River,  hill, 
market,  and  bridge  would  soon  combine  to  attract 
population.  The  same  thing  happened  on  the  banks 
of  the  Tiber  which  later  the  same  factors  reproduced  in 
Britain.     Rome  was  the  prototype  of  London. 


CHAPTER  XI 


THE    TYRANTS 


While  Rome  was  being  ruled  by  King  and  Senate,  and 
Carthage  by  **  Suffetes,"  or  *'  Judges  "  representing  a 
commercial  oligarchy,  how  were  the  Greeks  Lack  of 
governed  ?  Much  as  we  hear  of  cunning  and  ^^ity  in 
violence  and  wars  and  brigandage,  cities 
and  harbours  were  being  built,  commerce  and  wealth 
were  growing,  poetry  was  flourishing,  and  civilization 
generally  was  advancing  steadily.  And  none  of  these 
things  can  be,  without  some  settled  form  or  other,  how- 
ever faulty,  of  government.  Now,  first  of  all,  it  is 
important  for  a  twentieth-century  Englishman,  when 
dealing  with  early  Greek  history,  to  rid  his  mind  of  the 
national  idea,  which  he  of  course  takes  for  granted 
nowadays.  In  the  old  days,  and  even  in  the  so-called 
classical  period  of  their  history,  the  Greeks  were  never 
a  nation  in  our  sense  of  the  term.  Greece  was  about 
the  size  of  Scotland,  but  it  was  not  one  country  with  a 
capital  and  central  government  whose  orders  were 
respected  north,  south,  east,  and  west.  Physically,  it 
was  like  a  honeycomb,  high  mountain  ranges  dividing 
it  into  numerous  small  compartments ;  and  politically, 
it  was  broken  up  into  a  large  number  of  little  inde- 
pendent states,  each  with  its  own  government,  its  own 
capital,  its  own  laws,  its  own  dialect,  its  own  pride, 
its   own    selfish   interests.     Imagine    our    own  island 

171 


! 


172 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


broken  up  not  merely  into  separate  kingdoms  of 
England,  Scotland,  and  Wales,  nor  even  into  the  more 
numerous  and  smaller  Saxon  kingdoms  of  Mercia, 
Wessex,  Northumbria,  and  so  on,  as  it  once  was ;  but 
picture  it  broken  up  into  as  many  separate  kingdoms  as 
there  are  counties,  but  with  never  a  kingdom  as  large 
as  Yorkshire,  and  many  not  much  larger  than  a  good- 
sized  parish.     There  you  have  ancient  Greece. 

It  is  remarkable  that  if  you  want  to  translate 
''native  land,"  ** country,"  or  '* state"  into  Greek,  you 
Thepoiiticai  have  to  use  the  word  for  a  *'city";  there  is 
^^^-  no  other.     And  so  their  language  shows  that 

the  peoi)le  never  really  got  beyond  the  idea  of  a  single 
city  as  a  political  unit.  They  did  not  '*  think  imperially  " 
as  the  modern  phrase  goes,  but,  we  might  almost  say, 
"parochially." 

These  early  states  were  ruled  by  kings.     The  king 
was   the  *' biggest"  man  in  the  place.     Probably,  in 
Govern-        Very  early  times,  he  was  literally  the  biggest 
ment:  the     man  in  stature,  with  the  strongest  muscles, 
^°^'  who  surpassed  others  in  war  and  sport,  and 

could  break  the  heads  of  his  rivals.     He  was  the  richest 
man,  and  lived  in  the  best-built  house,  a  fortified  palace. 
He  was  the  leader  of  his  subjects  in  battle,  and  fought 
personally  in  the  forefront.     He  was  also  their  chief 
priest,  and  claimed  to  be  the  authorized  go-between 
between  them  and  the  gods,  offering  sacrifices  on  their 
behalf  and  informing  them  in  turn  of  the  will  of  heaven. 
He  was  also  their  judge,   and  settled  their   disputes, 
according,  generally,  to  an  unwritten  law  of  which  he 
TbecouncU    claimed  to  be  the   sole  guardian.     In   the 
of  elders.       administration  of  the  state  he  was  assisted 
by  a  council  of  elders  or  wise  men,  like  the  Witenagemot 
of  our  Saxon  kings.     This  was  the  natural  government 
for  the  states  to  have  in  the  early  times,  and  we  know 


THE   TYRANTS 


173 


that  most,  and  may  safely  assume  that  all,  went  through 
this  phase. 

But  a  change  came  with  the  Dorian  conquest,  in 
some    cases    directly    caused    by   it.     We    know,    for 
instance,  that  the   King  of  Athens  died  in  Disappear- 
battle  against  the  Dorians,  and  that  no  king  ance  of 
ascended  the  vacant  throne.     Whatever  the  ^^^^^^y- 
cause,  before  the  end  of  the  eighth  century  (700  b.c), 
there  were  no  longer  any  kings  in  Greece,  except  in 
Sparta,  where  alone  the  monarchy  survived  throughout 
the  course  of  Greek  history.     There  is  a  saying  that 
"  familiarity    breeds    contempt " ;    perhaps    that    had 
something  to  do  with  the  abolition  of  kings  in  the  old 
cities  and  small  states.     In  a  tiny  state  the  king  was 
continually  under  the  public  gaze ;  it  was  not  possible 
to  keep  up  the  aloofness  and  mystery  which  are  such 
powerful  aids  to  reverence.     Or,  perhaps,  it  was  simply 
that  the  citizens,  with  the  growth  of  knowledge  and 
trade  and  wealth,  considered  that  they  had  come  of  age 
and  could  rule  themselves.     Very  likely  the  whole  thing 
was  the  doing  of  the  nobles,  the  leading  men  of  the 
king's  council.     English  history  shows  clearly  enough 
how,  with  a  weak  king,  and  before  the  people  know  their 
strength,  the  nobles,  that  is  to  say,  the  **  known  "  men, 
the  great  landowners,  are  very  apt  to  get  out  of  control. 
In  Stephen's  time  the  barons,  as  they  were  called,  ran 
riot,  and  the  country  was  in  a  state  of  almost  complete 
anarchy. 

In  Greece  the  period  of  the  kings  was  followed  by 
one  in  which  the  states  were  ruled  by  *''  Oligarchies," 
in  other  words,  by  a  small  fixed  number  of  "  on- 
rich  landholding  families,  which  banded  &archy." 
themselves  together  in  a  close  and  exclusive  brother- 
hood, to  keep  the  reins  of  government  in  their  own 
hands.     The  power  must  not  go  out  of  the  charmed 


174 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE   TYRANTS 


175 


circle.  They  formed  a  kind  of  **  Trust,"  for  the 
monopoly  of  the  good  things  of  the  world.  Their  own 
name  for  themselves  was  **  Aristocracies " ;  for,  said 
they,  "are  we  not  the  best  people  in  the  land?  And 
who  should  rule,  if  not  the  best  ?  "  More  unanswerable 
than  their  logic  was  their  possession  of  physical  power. 
They  had  the  land  and  the  retainers  and  the  money 
and  the  education. 

But  this  state  of  affairs  could  not  last,  for  three 
chief  reasons.  Firstly,  money  and  retainers  meant 
Causes  of  ^g^^i^g*  and  when  the  nobles  fought,  the 
the  down-     people    suffered.      Farmhouses   were    burnt, 

gwchiM.'"  ^^^P^  ^P^^^^ '  a^^  *^e  smaller  and  poorer  the 
man,  the  severer  the  loss.  The  pastime  of 
the  rich  spelt  bankruptcy  to  the  poor.  In  peace  time, 
too,  the  nobles  must  have  their  luxuries.  Harvest  or  no 
harvest,  good  times  or  bad,  the  rents  must  be  paid. 
The  lord  danced,  and  the  peasant  paid  the  piper.  Result 
—debt,  ruin,  and  dangerous  discontent.  Secondly,  the 
people  of  Attica,  unlike  the  dull-witted  Saxon  plough- 
man the  Norman  barons  had  to  deal  with,  were  intelligent 
and  restless,  and  their  spirit  of  inquiry  was  bringing 
them  knowledge  of  the  world  and  of  their  own  rights 
and  strength.  They  would  not  **take  things  lying 
down."  Thirdly,  human  nature  was  too  strong  even 
for  the  close  corporations.  The  nobles  were  all  more 
or  less  equal,  and  all  jealous  of  each  other.  Jealousy 
bred  distrust,  and  their  doom  was  sealed. 

For  this  was  what  happened  over  and  over  and  over 
again,  north,  south,  east,  and  west  of  the  Greek  world. 
Advent  of  A  noble  arose  more  ambitious  and  restless 
the  tyrant,  ^j^^^  ^lis  peers,  and  with  a  genius  for  organi- 
zation and  party-leadership.  He  looked  about  him  for 
a  weapon,  grasped  the  discontent  of  the  people  and 
their  hatred  of  his  fellow-aristocrats,  and  resolved  to 


use  these  for  his  own  ends.  He  accordingly  donned 
sheep's  clothing,  and  went  into  the  fold.  He  expressed 
liberal  views  far  in  advance  of  his  time,  sympathized 
with  discontent,  and  attacked  monopolies  and  privilege. 
And  this  in  spite  of  his  own  blue  blood.  At  once  he 
became  a  hero,  a  self-sacrificing  patriot  who  put  country 
before  party.  The  masses  wanted  a  leader.  He  wanted 
a  following.  Why  not  join  forces  ?  And  join  they  did, 
and  privilege  was  swept  away,  by  battle,  execution,  or 
banishment,  in  every  case  accompanied  by  confiscation ; 
and  then,  heigh-ho !  the  masses  were  their  own  masters. 

So  they  thought.     But,  alas,  it  was  the  old  story 
over  again.     The  horse,  being  jealous  of  the  stag  and 
resenting  his  presence,  asked  man  to  help  The  horse 
him   to   get   rid   of  the   nuisance.     **  With  and  the 
pleasure,"  was  the  reply :  '*  just  let  me  get  on  *^*^' 
your  back  a  moment."    And  the  horse  eagerly  complied. 
Sure  enough,  the  pair  were  invincible,  and  the  obnoxious 
stag  ceased  to  give  trouble.     *'  Much  obliged,'*  said  the 
horse:  **let  me  know  if  I  can  do  anything  for  you  at 
any  time  :  good-bye  for  the  present."     And  with  that 
he  tried  to  shake  off  his  rider.     The  man  laughed : 
**  Don't  be  in  such  a  hurry,  my  friend.    I  mean  to  stay 
here  now  for  a  bit." 

So  it  was  with  the  people  and  their  champion. 
Suddenly,  the  prophet  of  liberty  and  equality,  the 
denouncer  of  privilege,  threw  off  the  mask.  The  tyrant 
and  showed  himself  not  indeed  an  aristocrat,  "veaied. 
but  an  autocrat.  In  a  few  cases  the  leader  who  acted 
thus  was  himself  one  of  the  people.  But  generally, 
with  slight  variations,  this  was  the  course  of  the  pro- 
gramme which  had  for  its  closing  item  the  establish- 
ment of  Autocracy,  and  it  was  followed  at  one  period  in 
practically  every  state  of  the  Greek  world.  The  name 
for  these  autocrats,  who  had  won  their  way  to  the 


176 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


throne  and  maintained  themselves  there  by  force,  was 
"  tyrants  '*  (rvfmwot).  The  word  has  an  ugly  sound  to 
our  ears.  To  the  Greeks  a  ** tyrant"  meant  one  who 
ruled  autocratically,  in  other  words,  without  a  council 
or  parliament;  what  is  sometimes  called  an  '^absolute," 
as  opposed  to  a  "  constitutional  "  ruler. 

The  tyrant  served  a  useful  purpose,  and  in  some 
cases  was  even  extremely  beneficial  to  the  state  he 
The  bright  ^^^^^'  He  removed,  by  death  or  banishment, 
Pktur?*""  *^^^  oppressive  nobles,  or,  at  any  rate,  kept 
them  in  strict  order.  Thus  he  substituted 
the  rule  of  one  master  for  that  of  manv,  which  was  in 
itself  a  gain  for  the  country.  All,  both  rich  and  poor, 
high  and  low,  were  equally  subject  to  him,  and  this 
prepared  the  way  for  the  establishment  later  on  of 
democracy  on  the  basis  of  equal  rights.  Moreover,  for 
Ms  own  safety's  sake,  and  to  gratify  his  pride, 'the 
tyrant  maintained  armed  forces  in  a  high  state  of 
efficiency,  favoured  commerce,  beautified  his  city,  en- 
couraged art,  and  liked  his  court  to  be  talked  about  in 
the  world  as  the  meeting-place  of  poets,  philosophers, 
artists,  and  every  kind  of  great  men. 

Of  course,  there  was  another  side  to  the  rule  of 
a  tyrant.  A  tyrant  has  temptations  like  other  men, 
The  darker  but  greater  in  proportion  to  his  power.  He 
was  responsible  to  none,  his  rule  was  avowedly 
maintained  by  force,  and  his  own  person  often  hedged 
round  by  a  foreign  bodyguard.  The  meaning  of  our 
word  **  tyrant "  and  its  origin  show  that  the  old  Greek 
autocrats  were  not  made  of  milk  and  water. 

Good  or  bad,  they  were  strong  men  who  left  their 
impress  on  Greek  history,  and  anecdotes  have  gathered 
thick  about  them.  Take  Corinth.  Here,  as  in  all  the 
great  cities  of  the  Peloponnese,  the  government  was  in 
the  hands  of  a  Heracleid    family.     The    Bacchiadae 


THE   TYRANTS 


177 


Cypseltts. 


claimed  descent  from  Bacchis,  who  "  came  over  with 
the    Conqueror  "  at  the  Dorian  invasion,  and  was  re- 
warded with    the    kingdom  of   Corinth.     In 
course  of  time  the  government  had  changed  JtSi  the 
from  a  monarchy  to  a  close  oligarchy,  but  bacchiadae 
was   still  kept  in   the    circle   of    the    same  ''^  ^°'^^''^^' 
dominant  family. 

One  day  the  terrible  news  went  round  that  a  child 
had  been  born  in  the  clan,  who,  so  an  oracle  had  said, 
would  hopelessly  upset  the  family  fortunes. 
A  search  was  made  for  him  with  a  view  to 
averting  such  a  catastrophe,  but  his  mother,  caring 
more  for  her  darling  than  the  clan,  and  snapping  her 
fingers  at  the  oracle,  concealed  him  in  an  ancestral 
linen-chest,  and  so  cheated  the  would-be  murderers. 
From  this  early  adventure  he  was  called  Cypselus  (from 
Kv^PiXi]  =  a  chest),  and  he  lived  to  be  the  first  tyrant  of 
Corinth,  having  led  the  People  against  the  Oligarchs. 
At  first  he  was  very  cruel  to  the  Bacchiadae,  but  no 
doubt  they  exasperated  him.  He  was  fond  of  show, 
like  all  tyrants,  and  dedicated  a  bronze  palm-tree  at 
Delphi,  and  a  golden  statue  of  Zeus  at  Olympia.  The 
famous  chest  to  which  he  owed  his  life  was  to  be  seen 
at  Olympia  till  the  end  of  the  second  century,  a.d. 

After  a  reign  of  thirty  years  he  was  succeeded  by 
his  much  more  famous  son  Periander,  who  reduced 
** tyranny"  to  a  fine  art.  He  had  a  good 
eye  for  diplomacy  and  kept  up  friendly  re-  ^®"*^^®^- 
lations  with  other  tyrants  abroad,  and  with  foreign 
kings,  such  as  Thrasybulus  of  Miletus  and  Alyattes, 
King  of  Lydia.  It  was  Thrasybulus,  according  to  the 
story,  who,  on  receiving  a  request  from  Periander  for 
advice  on  the  best  way  to  maintain  his  authority  at 
home,  took  the  messenger  through  a  corn-field,  and 
knocked  off,  as  he  went,  the  tallest  ears.      Periander 


N 


178 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


required  no  explanation  of  the  dumb-show,  but  followed 
out  the  hint  very  thoroughly,  He  kept  a  very  powerful 
navy  and  army,  conquered  Epidaurus,  kept  Coreyra  in 
subjection,  planned  a  canal  across  the  Isthmus  of 
Corinth,  joining  the  two  seas,  and,  though  this  was  not 
accomplished,  drew  trade  and  immense  wealth  to  his 
city.  He,  however,  did  not  let  it  accumulate  in  a  few 
hands.  He  was  of  a  suspicious  temper.  Great  wealth 
was  a  danger  to  its  owners.  He  also  suppressed  all 
clubs,  and  made  laws  against  extravagance,  ostentation, 

and  luxury. 

He  was  a  patron  of  art  and  literature.     The  famous 

Arion   and  Anacharsis  were  both  guests  at  his  court. 

.      Anacharsis    was    a    Scythian   prince    (from 

Anac  arsis,    g^^^j^^^.^^  Russia),  who  travelled  about  Greece, 

conversed  with  Solon  at  Athens,  and  won  a  great  repu- 
tation for  sagacity. 

Arion  is  best  known  through  his  frequent  represen- 
tation astride  on  a  dolphin.  After  a  successful  tour  of 
South  Italy,  he  was  returning  to  Corinth. 
The  crew,  recognizing  the  famous  singer  and 
smelling  booty,  plotted  to  murder  him.  The  wretched 
man  begged  to  be  allowed  to  sing  once  more  on  the 
quarterdeck  with  his  harp,  and  in  full  concert-dress,  and 
having  finished  his  song,  leaped  into  the  sea,  where  a 
dolphin,  attracted  by  the  glorious  music,  received  him 
on  his  back  and  brought  him  safe  and  sound  to  shore. 
To  their  surprise,  the  murderous  sailors  were  arrested  on 
their  arrival  and  confronted  before  Periander  with  Arion, 
in  full-dress,  just  as  he  was  when  he  jumped  off  the  ship ! 

Though  a  strong  and  capable  ruler,  Periander's 
character  was  hopelessly  marred  by  its  violence,  which 
made  his  private  life  a  tragedy.  He  was  passionately 
devoted  to  his  wife  Melissa,  and  yet  one  day  in  an 
uncontrolled  rage  he  struck  her,  with  a  fatal  result. 


Arion. 


THE   TYRANTS 


179 


There  were  two  sons.    When  they  were  grown  up,  their 
mother's  father,  Procles,  Tyrant  of  Epidaurus,  pgriander' 
invited  them  to  stay  with  him,  and,  as  they  domestic 
were    going    away,   said :    "  Do    you  know,  ^^®' 
my  boys,  who  killed  your  mother  ?  "     The  words  made 
no  impression  on  the  elder,  but  his  younger  brother 
Lycoi)hron  brooded  over  the  words,  and  suspected  the 
truth.     The  result  was  an  estrangement  between  him 
and  his  father,  which  neither  threats,  nor  entreaties, 
nor  any  measures  could  heal.    By  proclamation  no  one 
was  allowed  to  receive  or  even  speak  to  this  recalcitrant 
son.    At  last  he  was  banished  to  Coreyra,  the  depen- 
dency of  Corinth,   and   Periander   fought   against   his 
father-in-law,  and  imprisoned  him,  to  pay  him  out  for 
his  meddlesome  indiscretion.     But  as  he  grew  old  and 
infirm,  the  remorse-stricken  man  wished  to  see  his  son, 
who,  in  spite  of  all,  was  his  favourite  and  destined  to 
succeed  him,  and  to  make  his  peace  with  him.     Lyco- 
phron  refused  to  set  foot  in  Corinth  so  long  as  his  father 
was  still  alive.     Thereupon  the  old  man  arranged  that 
they  should  exchange  places  ;   he  should  go  to  Coreyra 
to  end  his  days,  and  his  young  son  come  and  occupy  the 
throne  at  Corinth.     No  doubt  he  hoped  that  by  some 
lucky  intervention  of  Providence  they  might  meet  on  the 
way.     But  the  Corey raeans  got  wind  of  the  plan,  and, 
much  as  they  hked  the  young  Lycophron,  they  murdered 
him  sooner  than  that  the  project  should  be  carried  out. 
How  they  must  have  feared  and  hated  the  aged  tyrant ! 
And  they  were  not  far  wrong  in  their  estimate.     In  his 
fury  he  deported  three  hundred  boys  of  the  best  Cor- 
cyraean  families  to  be  slaves  in  Lydia. 

Such  domestic  misery  was  not  common  even  in  the 
families  of  tyrants ;    but  they  were  all,   as  Theagenes 
would  be  expected,  violent  men,  some  more,  ®^  Megara. 
some  less.   Theagenes,  Tyrant  of  Megara,  won  the  hearts 


180 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


of  the  people  by  destroying  the  rich  nobles'  cattle  in 
their  parks. 

Thrasybulus,  Tyrant  of  Miletus,  is  famous  for  his 
Thrasybuius  treatment  of  the  tallest  corn-ears,  and  bears 
ofMiietuB.  the  bhxme  for  having  wrought  a  change  for 
the  worse  in  his  friend  Periander's  character. 

Cleisthenes,  Tyrant  of  Sicyon,  conceived  such  a 
hatred  of  Argos  that  he  prohibited  the  recitation  of 
Cleisthenes  Ilomer's  poems  because  they  were  complimen- 
of  Sicyon.  ^ary  to  Argos  and  the  Argives.  He  also 
deliberately  set  himself  to  heap  humiliation  on  the  proud 
old  Dorian  famihes  of  Sicyon.  For  instance,  he 
changed  the  historic  names  of  their  three  clans  to 
appellations  derived  from  the  Sow,  the  Ass,  and  the 
Pig.     In  other  respects  he  was  moderate  and  successful. 

Phalaris,  Tyrant  of  Agrigentum,  will  always  be 
remembered,  rightly  or  wrongly,  for  monstrous  cruelty, 
«^  ,    .    ,    and  for  the  letters  which  he  never  wrote.    But 

Pnalaris  or  ,,      ,i        i  in 

ofAgri-  perhaps,  after  all,  the  brazen  bull  was  as 
gentum.  much  an  invention  as  the  once  famous 
**  Letters "  were  proved  to  be.  The  spuriousness  of 
these  '* Letters  of  Phalaris"  was  exposed  at  the  close 
of  the  seventeenth  century  by  the  great  scholar  Bentley, 
who  called  them  **  a  fardle  of  common-places."  The 
**buir'  was  a  hollow  brass  statue  of  a  bull,  so  con- 
structed that  a  man  could  be  enclosed  in  it  and  baked 
to  death;  and  the  story  was  told  that  Phalaris  tried 
this  engine  of  torture  for  the  first  time  on  its  inventor ! 
A  less  inhuman  and  more  interesting  tyrant  was 
Polycrates  of  Samos.  Though  living  twenty -four 
Poiycrates  centuries  before  Captain  Mahan,  he  antici- 
of  Samos.  pated  that  eminent  American  sailor's  theories, 
and  was  a  shining  example  of  the  influence  of  sea- 
power.  He  also,  like  the  Hyksos,  forestalled  Edward 
III.'s  discovery  of  the  value  of  archery,  and  trained  a 


THE   TYRANTS 


181 


force  of  1000  bowmen.  By  his  invincible  fleet  and  archers 
he  made  himself  master  of  the  islands  of  the  Aegean 
and  of  many  cities  on  the  mainland,  and,  like  all 
tyrants,  lived  in  great  style,  patronized  art  and 
literature,  and  made  foreign  alliances.  Like  many 
tyrants  also,  he  was  unscrupulous  and  i^lundered 
indiscriminately,  saying,  with  a  laugh,  that  he  gave  a 
friend  more  pleasure  by  restoring  what  he  had  taken 
from  him  than  by  not  taking  it  at  all ! 

Apart  from  his  sea-power,  he  is  perhaps  best  known 
for  the  extraordinary  good  luck  which  seemed  never  to 
desert  him.  It  was  so  remarkable  that  his  The  story  of 
ally,  the  superstitious  Pharaoh  Amasis,  felt  tigering, 
quite  uncomfortable  about  it  and  broke  off  friendly 
relations.  First,  however,  he  tried  mild  remonstrance. 
*'I  wish  you  could  have  some  share  of  ill-luck,"  he 
wrote,  "  it  would  be  better  for  us  both.  I  have  never 
yet  known  a  man  who  had  unbroken  good  luck  and  did 
not  eventually  come  to  a  bad  end.  So  throw  away  that 
which  you  value  most  and  which  it  will  grieve  you  most 
to  part  with."  If  this  prescription  did  not  effect  a  cure, 
the  dose  must  be  repeated  till  it  did.  Polycrates  read 
and  pondered.  Then  he  put  out  to  sea  and  threw  over- 
board a  most  valuable  emerald  and  gold  signet-ring. 
Which  done,  he  went  home  and  felt  a  fool,  and  wished 
he  had  not  taken  the  Egyptian's  advice.  But  before  a 
week  was  out,  a  fisherman  ajDpeared  at  the  palace  gates 
with  a  huge  fish,  and  being  ushered  into  the  presence 
made  his  bow  and  gave  it  to  the  tyrant,  saying  it  was 
too  good  to  take  its  chance  at  the  Samian  Billingsgate. 
For  his  pains  he  was  graciously  commanded  to  join  his 
sovereign  at  dinner.  The  fish  was  taken  to  the  kitchen, 
and  lo  and  behold,  in  it  was  found  the  tyrant's  signet- 
ring !  Evidently,  his  luck  could  not  desert  him.  He 
informed  his  friend  the  Pharaoh,  who  gave  him  up  as 


182 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


a  hopeless  case,  and  the  entente  conUale  was  formally 
broken  off.  Not  long  after  the  Egyptian's  presentiment 
was  justified.  Polycrates,  the  ever-lucky,  fell  into  a 
trap  laid  for  him  by  a  wily  Persian,  and  was  crucified. 

But  most  interesting,  historically,  of  all  the  tyrants 
was  Peisistratus  of  Athens.  Cylon,  the  handsome 
Peisistratus  Olympic  prize-winner,  had  been  carried  away 
of  Athens,  ^y  ^^ic  praise  and  popularity  which  ever  fall 
to  successful  athletes,  and  by  his  marriage  with  the 
daughter  of  Theagenes,  the  Tyrant  of  Megara,  and  had 
made  an  attempt  to  establish  a  tyranny  in  Athens, 
seizing  the  Acropolis.  But  his  eoiq)  was  a  failure. 
He  was  starved  into  surrender  and  murdered.  And 
Athens  was  still  **free,"  being  governed  by  a  semi- 
democratic  constitution  given  it  by  Solon,  when 
Peisistratus,  his  second  cousin,  made  his  successful 
coup  iVetat,  This  time  the  tyrant  sprang  from  a  family 
which  had  not  come  over  with  the  Dorian  Conquerors, 
but  went  one  better,  having  been  royal  before  the 
invaders  came  and  been  dispossessed  by  them. 

Attica  was  divided  into  three  factions,  the  Plain, 
consisting  of  the  rich  landowners,  the  Shore,  comprising 
The  Attic  the  wealthy  mercantile  class,  and  the  Moun- 
factions ;  tain,  poorer,  rougher  and  more  independent, 
and  moun-  '  The  first  was  led  by  Lycurgus,  the  second  by 
^"^  Megacles,  and  Peisistratus,  having  his  own 

ends  to  serve,  assumed  the  leadership  of  the  third.  He 
won  popularity  by  his  good  looks  and  eloquence,  and 
more  by  throwing  open  his  gardens  to  the  public,  and 
taking  the  air  accompanied  by  a  secretary  with  a  well- 
filled  purse,  out  of  which  he  generously  relieved  the 
wants  of  the  poorer  folk. 

When  the  time  seemed  ripe  and  the  ground  well 
prepared,  he  boldly  made  his  bid  for  power.  He 
appeared  in  the  market-place  one  day  bleeding  from 


I  '1 


THE   TYRANTS 


183 


self-inflicted  wounds,  and  declaring  that  he.  had  been 
set  upon  by  his  enemies  for  being  too  friendly  to  the 
People.  A  roar  of  indignation  went  up,  and  First 
the  clever  actor  was  immediately  voted  a  body-  ^s'lrpation. 
guard  of  fifty  stalwart  club-bearers.  In  a  trice  our  quick- 
change  artist  had  increased  his  guard  tenfold,  and  was 
securely  entrenched  in  the  Acropolis,  and  master  of  the 
situation.  But  not  for  long.  The  Plain  and  the  Shore 
combined  against  the  common  foe  and  drove  him 
out. 

The  danger  past,  however,  disunion  returned.  The 
Shore  approached  the  exile.  Peisistratus  married  the 
daughter  of  Megacles,  and  returned  to  Athens  second 
in  triumph.  He  found  a  young  woman  of  usurpation, 
remarkable  stature  and  beauty,  whom  he  arrayed  in 
a  complete  suit  of  shining  armour.  Then  he  spread 
abroad  the  rumour — and  among  Athenians  how  fast  it 
must  have  travelled ! — that  their  patron-goddess  Athene 
in  person  was  coming  in  a  chariot  to  conduct  her 
beloved  Peisistratus  into  her  Acropolis.  So  the  crowd 
stared  open-mouthed,  and  once  more  he  passed  up 
to  the  rocky  citadel.  But  the  tyrant  proved  a  bad 
husband,  and  his  father-in-law  once  more  combined 
with  the  Plain  and  drove  him  into  exile. 

This  time  he  absented  himself  for  ten  years.  Then, 
having  carefully  laid  his  plans  and  raised  an  army,  he 
landed  at  Marathon,  caught  his  opponents  at  Third 
noon  while  they  were  digesting  their  luncheon  usurpation, 
and  not  expecting  him,  and  for  the  third  time  took 
possession  of  the  Acropolis.  This  time  he  vowed  he 
would  go  travelling  no  more,  and  accordingly  took  no 
risks. 

All  the  usual  accompaniments  of  a  tyranny  made 
their  appearance ;  foreign  bodyguard,  magnificent  court, 
alliances  with  foreign  states,  taxes,  architecture,  patron- 


184 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE  TYRANTS 


185 


! 


age  of  art  and  literature.  But  Peisistratus  was  distin- 
guished for  his  humanity,  his  practical  common  sense, 

Peisistratus'  ^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  benefits  he  conferred  on  his 
beneficent     country.     He  would   tolerate   no  loafers   in 

•  Athens.     Either   they  must   go   back  to  the 

country  and  labour  at  agriculture,  or  else  they  were 
employed  in  his  great  building  operations.  He  erected 
temples  and  created  the  Lyceum  gardens.  **  No  un- 
employed while  I  govern  here,"  said  he.  To  pay  for  all 
this,  he  levied  a  tax  of  ten  per  cent,  on  the  produce  of 
land,  a  composition  tax  for  all  purposes.  The  world 
owes  him  an  everlasting  debt  for  his  collection  and 
edition  of  an  authorized  text  of  the  Homeric  poems,  till 
then  scattered  and  uncertain,  and  he  encouraged  the 
first  steps  of  the  dramatic  art  in  his  city;  two  acts 
which  must  for  ever  secure  his  place  in  the  world's 
history.  He  left  the  Solonian  constitution  untouched, 
except  that  the  highest  offices  were  a  strict  preserve  of 
the  tyrant's  family,  and  insisted  on  the  observance  of 
the  law  of  the  land,  himself  once  appearing  in  the 
courts  to  answer  a  charge  of  murder.  The  prosecutor, 
however,  was  shy,  and  the  case  did  not  proceed. 

He  was  succeeded  by  two  sons  of  less  commanding 
character,  Hippias  and  Hipparchus,  who  seem  to 
Hippias  and  have  reigned  jointly.  They  continued  their 
End^"*^^^^*  8^^^*  father's  policy,  completed  his  buildings, 
"tyranny"  welcomed  men  of  genius  like  the  poets  Simo- 
in  Athens,  ^ides  and  Anacreon,  and,  last  but  not  least, 
reduced  the  taxes  by  a  half.  But  their  public  was 
better  than  their  private  life,  a  not  infrequent  phe- 
nomenon, especially  with  tyrants.  To  avenge  a  private 
outrage,  Hipparchus  was  murdered  by  Harmodius 
and  Aristogeiton,  and  from  that  moment  his  brother 
Hippias  became  a  suspicious  and  sour  despot.  In- 
trigues were  renewed  by  the  Shore,  those  implacable 


enemies  of  the  Peisistratids.  The  family  of  Megacles, 
having  contracted  to  build  a  temple  at  Delphi  of  ordi- 
nary stone,  built  it  of  white  marble  for  the  same  price. 
Naturally,  the  priests  were  anxious  to  repay  such  kind- 
ness. **Very  well,"  was  the  reply;  **  do  this;  when- 
ever the  Spartans  come  to  consult  you,  no  matter  what 
the  question,  say,  *  Athens  must  be  freed.'  That  is  all." 
The  Spartans  in  time  wearied  of  this  monotonous  reply 
to  their  inquiries,  and  by  their  help  Hippias  was  closely 
beleaguered  in  his  rocky  fortress  on  the  Acropolis.  By 
good  luck,  the  besiegers  obtained  possession  of  his 
family  who  were  being  stealthily  removed  for  greater 
safety.  With  all  his  faults,  Hippias  was  a  good  father, 
and,  to  save  them,  he  evacuated  the  citadel  and  left  the 
country. 

I'll  wreathe  my  sword  in  myrtle  bough, 
The  sword  that  laid  Hipparchus  low, 
When  patriots,  burning  to  be  free, 
To  Athens  gave  equality. 

Harmodius,  hail !  though  'reft  of  breath, 
Thou  ne'er  shalt  feel  the  stroke  of  death ; 
The  heroes'  happy  isles  shall  be 
The  bright  abode  allotted  thee. 

I'll  wreathe  my  sword  in  myrtle  bough, 
The  sword  that  laid  Hipparchus  low, 
When  at  Minerva's  adverse  fane 
He  knelt,  and  never  rose  again. 

While  Freedom's  name  is  understood, 
You  shall  delight  the  wise  and  good  ; 
You  dared  to  set  your  country  free, 
And  gave  her  laws  equality.* 

•  Epigram  ascribed  to  Callistratus,  translated  by  "  D  "  in  Bland's 
**  Collections  from  the  Greek  Anthology." 


186 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE   TYRANTS 


187 


Not  the  least  curious   fact  iu  all   this  is   that   the 

610  B.C.  in    ^^^y    same  year,   510    b.c,   saw  the   with- 

Athens  and    drawal  of  the  last  tyrant  from  Athens,  and 

°™®'  the   expulsion  of  the  last  of  its  kings  from 

Eorae. 

In  some  other  states  tyrants  continued  to  rule  till 
a  much  later  date ;  for  instance,  in  Sicily.  A  remark- 
able trio  of  brothers  reigned  successively  in  Syracuse. 
The  eldest,  Gelo,  who  was  very  lenient,  was  on  the 
throne  at  the  time  of  the  Persian  Wars,  and  offered  to 
help  against  Xerxes,  if  he  were  given  the  chief  com- 
mand ;  but  his  terms  were  refused.  Hiero,  who  suc- 
ceeded him,  is  famous  as  the  winner  of  chariot-races  and 
patron  of  the  poets  Pindar  and  Aeschylus.  Thrasybulus 
was  expelled  by  the  people  in  467,  and  the  dynasty 
ended  with  his  removal. 

The  tyrants  had  served  an  important  purpose. 
Throughout  the  Greek  world  they  had  "hammered 
The  tyrant's  ^^^^S^  into  shape  " ;  they  had  enforced  respect 
place  in  for  law ;  they  had  broken  the  backs  of  the 
istory.  turbulent  and  oppressive  nobilities,  and  so 
prepared  them  for  the  notion  of  equality  before  the 
law ;  they  had  substituted  the  rule  of  one  for  that  of 
many  masters ;  they  had  directed  men's  gaze  beyond 
the  limited  horizon  of  their  own  parochial  interests,  and 
prepared  the  way  for  a  wider  conception  of  nationality ; 
and,  not  least,  they  had,  unintentionally  but  none  the 
less  effectually,  proved  that,  with  all  the  best  intentions 
in  the  world,  irresponsible  rule  was  not  compatible  with 
the  real  best  interests  of  the  state.  The  place  of  the 
tyrants  in  Greek  history  is  much  the  same  as  that  of 
Henry  II.  and  Henry  VII.  in  our  own.  The  first  Plan- 
tagenet  and  the  first  Tudor  were  neither  usurpers  nor 
demagogues.  But  they  resembled  the  tyrants  in  essen- 
tial features.    Each  succeeded  and  effectually  closed 


a  period  of  aristocratic  anarchy,  and  each  gave  en- 
couragement to  a  wider  conception  of  nationality.  They 
both,  so  to  speak,  knocked  the  nobles'  heads  together 
and  put  them  under  the  heel  of  one  common  master, 
the  Tudors  being  especially  successful  in  this  because 
the  internecine  madness  of  the  Wars  of  the  Eoses  had 
so  completely  weakened  aristocratic  resistance  to  their 
will.  But,  if  the  tyrants  had  done  much,  they  were 
an  incentive  to  men  to  do  more.  Before  the  next  step 
could  be  taken,  the  tyrants  themselves,  bag  and  bag- 
gage, had  to  be  removed,  just  as  in  England  the  Civil 
War  and  the  Revolution  were  needed  to  remove  the 
Stuart  heirs  of  the  Tudors  before  the  i^ath  could  be 
clear  for  Constitutional  freedom. 


CHArTEK  XII 


THE  LAW(UVKRS 


It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  during  the  Age 
of  the  Tyrants  (about  700  500  b.c),  the  Greek  states  were 
Tyrants         entirely  at  the  mercy  of  the  mere  whims  and 
uphold  law.    eaprices  of  those  irresponsible  rulers.     True, 
the  Tyrants  hedged  themselves  round  with  bodyguards 
and  lived  in  fortified  citadels.    But,  though  in  most  cases 
they  put  themselves  above  the  law,  they  did  not  abolish 
the  law.     Many  of  the  states  had  enjoyed  or  were  still 
enjoying  the  advantage  of  excellent  codes  given  them 
by  patriotic  and  statesmanUke   lawgivers,  and   others 
had  borrowed  from  them.     So  far  from  abolishing  these 
laws,  one  of  the  good  points  of  the  tyrants  was  that 
they  gave  them  the  support  of  their  "  mailed  lists,'*  and 
enforced   respect   for   them   on   all   alike.      80   Peisis- 
tratus  in  Athens  came  down  one    day  from  his  rock- 
castle   to    stand   his   trial    in   the    public   courts,    and 
used  his  power  to  make  the  restless  and  independent 
Athenians  learn  to  obey  and  reverence  the  majesty  of 
the  Law.      And  there   had  been  lawgivers  in  Greece 
even  before  Solon. 

Now  everybody  knows  that  laws  are  very  dull  things 
to  read  about,  unless  you  happen  to  be  a  lawyer,  in 
which  case  the  study  has  its  solid  compensations.  So  I 
shall  not  ask  you  to  burden  your  memory  with  a  heap 
of  legal  detail     But  some  of  these  lawgivers   cannot 

188 


THE   LAWGIVERS 


189 


possibly  be  left  altogether  without  mention.     Laws  are 
duller  than  wars,  but  the  world  owes  them  more. 

Sparta  never  was  ruled  by  a  tyrant.  All  through  the 
Age  of  tlie  Tyrants,  and  long  after,  its  constitution  con- 
tinued the  same  as  it  had  been  since  the  days  Constitution 
of  the  great  Dorian  conquest.  The  form  of  o^sparta. 
government  was  practically  what  we  find  existing  in  the 
times  described  in  the  Homeric  poems.  In  other  words, 
it  consisted  of  King,  Elders  and  People,  much  the  same 
as  the  modern  King,  Lords  and  Commons.  Only  in 
Sparta  there  were  two  local  variations  in  the  system, 
There  were  two  equal  joint  kings  instead  of  one,  and 
there  was  an  inner  executive  council  of  five  men  called 
Ephors  or  Overseers,  who  in  many  respects  controlled 
even  the  kings  and  practically  wielded  the  supreme 
power.  There  again  we  are  reminded  a  little  of  our 
cabinet  system. 

Now  the  Spartans  themselves  and  the  rest  of  the 
world  ascribed  the  Spartan  constitution  and  ^ 

•■  Lycurgus. 

all  the  Spartan  laws  on  every  subject  to  Lycur-    — _ 

gus.  Some  historians  think  this  is  an  exaggeration  and 
gives  too  much  credit  to  one  man,  while  others  go  even 
further  and  declare  that  the  laws  grew  up  gradually, 
and  that  Lycurgus  is  merely  a  myth.  But  here  is 
what  people  in  the  old  days  said.  Lycurgus  lived  early 
in  the  ninth  century  B.C.,  about  880,  and  was  the  uncle 
and  guardian  of  an  infant  king  of  Sparta.  Being 
suspected  of  ambitious  designs — regents  often  are  am- 
bitious— he  left  Sparta  and  travelled  in  Asia  Minor, 
Crete,  Spain,  Egypt,  and  even  India.  Meanwhile  things 
went  wrong  at  home  and  when  he  at  last  returned  he 
was  hailed  as  the  one  man  who  could  save  the  state  and 
cure  all  its  diseases.  On  his  journeys  he  had  kept  his 
eyes  and  ears  open,  and  perhaps  even  kept  a  note-book, 
and  he  came  back  brim-full  of  knowledge  and  wisdom, 


190 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE  LAWGIVERS 


191 


ri 


his  own  views  matured  from  seeing  both  the  good  and 
bad  points  in  the  Laws  of  the  countries  he  had  visited. 

His  laws  would  fill  many  pages.      The  important 
thing  to  remember  is  that  they  one  and  all,  directly  or 
Sparta  a       indirectly,  aimed  at  one  single  object,  military   - 
camp.  efficiency.     That  is  Spartan  legislation  in  a 

nutshell.  Sparta  was  not  a  centre  of  commerce  like 
London,  nor  a  home  of  art  like  Paris ;  it  was  a  camp, 
and  all  the  men  in  it  were  soldiers.  A  Spartan  king 
once  boasted  that  Sparta  had  no  need  of  walls,  *'  for," 
said  he,  **  every  man  is  a  brick."  To  the  end  of  its 
history  it  remained  unfortified.  The  city  lived  like  an 
army  in  the  field,  with  sentinels  on  duty,  ready  for 
any  alarm.  No  walls,  no  fine  buildings.  The  Dorians 
had  had  a  hard  task  to  conquer  Laconia,  they  had 
treated  their  beaten  foes  very  harshly,  they  felt  them- 
selves to  be  unpopular,  and  so  regarded  themselves  and 
behaved  like  an  army  of  occupation  in  a  hostile  country. 
Instead  of  mixing  with  the  conquered  Achaeans,  they 
held  aloof.  It  was  therefore  of  vital  importance  to  keep 
up  their  numbers  and  to  keep  themselves  in  a  high  state 
/of  military  efficiency.  Every  Spartan  was  bound  by 
law  to  marry  and  give  citizens  to  the  state.  Lycurgus 
had  no  use  for  bachelors.  The  wife  must  be  well 
selected.  A  Spartan  king  was  fined  for  marrying  a 
short  wife  whose  children  might  be  expected  to  be  of  an 
unroyal  stature.  There  were  privileges  for  the  father 
of  three,  and  still  more  for  the  father  of  four  children. 
Every  day  there  were  military  exercises.  Every  moment 
of  life  was  permeated  by  military  discipline.  A  man 
was  too  busy  with  camp  duties  to  be  much  with  his  wife 
and  children.  Not  even  at  meals  was  the  father  at 
home.  The  whole  male  population  was  divided  into 
*'  Messes,"  and  the  men  sat  at  table  in  groups  of  fifteen. 
Vacancies  at  a  table  were  filled  by  co-optation,  and  one 


I 


black  ball  disqualified  a  candidate.  Everything  was 
done  to  train  the  Spartans  in  the  notion  that  they  were 
all  brothers  and  children  of  one  common  mother,  the 
state.  They  were  to  be  soldiers  and  nothing  else. 
Trade  and  agriculture  were  discountenanced.  The  arts 
were  totally  neglected.  Whereas  we  consider  that  the 
state  exists  for  the  benefit  of  the  individual,  the  Spartan 
view  was  that  the  individual  existed  solely  for  the  state. 

Now  without  going  so  far  as  to  deny  the  existence 
of  Lycurgus,  it  may  be  suggested  that  tradition  claims 
too  much  for  him.  A  great  many  of  the  laws  piace  of 
and  customs  of  Sparta  were  common  to  other  ^yc^rgus. 
Dorian  states,  such  as  Crete,  and  were  probably  part  of 
an  ancient  prehistoric  heritage  of  the  whole  conquering 
race.  The  work  of  the  legislator,  whatever  his  name 
and  date,  was  more  probably  limited  to  a  systematic 
arrangement  of  customs  and  laws  and  adaptation  of 
them  to  local  conditions  and  aims.  Criticism  may  go 
too  far  in  obliterating  individuals.  It  were  almost  as 
great  a  pity  to  lose  Lycurgus  as  to  deny  the  Hebrews 
their  Moses. 

Two  centuries  later  (G60  b.c.)  Zaleucus  gave  laws  to 
the  Epizephyrian  Locrians  in  southern  Italy.  They 
were  mostly  based  on  the   Dorian  laws  of  _  , 

•  1  1       Ai       Zaleucus. 

Sparta  and  Crete,  but  were  said  to  be  the 

first  written  code  possessed  by  a  Greek  city.     Like  all 

early  laws,  they  were  severe,  but  another  peculiarity  of 

these  was  that  for  the  first  time  definite  penalties  were 

attached  to  stated  offences.    The  intending  law-breaker, 

therefore,  knew  exactly  the  risk  he  ran,  just  as  nowadays 

there  are  definite  penalties  for  making  a  false  return  of 

income,  or  for  exceeding  the  speed  limit  in  a  motor-car. 

Two  anecdotes  are  related  of  Zaleucus.    His  son  having, 

owing  to  a  certain  offence,  become  liable  to  the  loss  of 

his  eyes,  Zaleucus  voluntarily  sacrificed  one  of  his  own 


192 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


/ 


so  that  his  son  might  not  be  totally  blind.  The  other 
story  relates  to  the  manner  of  his  death.  He  had 
made  a  law  that  no  one  might  enter  the  senate  house 
armed,  under  penalty  of  death.  In  a  time  of  riot  he 
inadvertently  broke  this  law,  and  when  some  punctilious 
friend  pointed  out  the  fact  to  him,  he  fell  on  his  own 
sword  and  died,  exclaiming  that  the  law  must  be  obeyed. 
A  generation  later  again  (G21  b.c.)  Draco  drew  up 
his  celebrated  code  for  Athens.  It  was  so  severe  that 
the  punning  criticism  went  about  that  the 
^'^^^'  laws  were  those  of  a  dragon  (Greek  ^puKiov) 

not  a  man.  It  was  also  said  that  they  were  written 
not  in  ink  but  in  blood.  To  this  day  we  still  use  the 
term  *' Draconian"  in  the  sense  of  *' severe."  The 
whimsical  peculiarity  of  this  code  was  that  there  was 
one  unvarying  penalty  for  every  offence— death.  On 
being  asked  why  this  was  so,  Draco  simply  replied  that 
the  smallest  offences  mentioned  in  the  code  deserved 
that  penalty,  and  that  he  had  been  unable  to  devise  a 
severer  one  for  the  graver  faults.  It  is  scarcely  credible 
that  such  laws  were  really  in  force  in  Athens  in  the 
seventh  century,  though  we  must  remember  that  even 
in  Christian  England,  so  late  as  the  nineteenth  century, 
a  man  was  hanged  for  stealing  a  sheep.  The  drawback 
of  such  a  law  is  obvious.  Draco's  code  was,  of  course, 
too  primitive  and  indiscriminating  to  last  long,  and, 
with  advancing  civilization,  it  soon  fell  into  disuse. 

Its  place   was    taken    by  the    more    humane    and 
elaborate    enactments   of  Solon  (594).      Solon  was  a 
contemporary  of  the  Tyrants  Periander  and 
^^^^'  Peisistratus,  the  milHonaire  king  Croesus,  the 

prophet  Jeremiah,  the  philosopher  Pythagoras,  the  royal 
orcranizer  of  Eome  Servius  Tullius,  and  Aesop  the  writer 
of\bles.  During  his  lifetime  great  Nineveh  fell  never 
to  rise  again,  and  Nebuchadnezzar  destroyed  Jerusalem. 


THE  LAWGIVERS 


193 


He  appeals  to  the  popular  imagination  chiefly  by  his 
being  one  of  the  Seven  Sages,  by  his  feigned  madness 
and  rescue  of  the  island  of  Salamis,  and  by  the  now 
discredited  story  of  his  conversation  with  king  Croesus. 
But  his  importance  to  Athens  rested  on  more  solid 
grounds. 

As  we  saw  when  dealing  with  Peisistratus,  Attica 
was  unsettled  by  the  quarrels  of  the  three  rival  factions 
of  the  Plain,  the  Shore,  and  the  Mountain.  Debt  and 
What   with   liability  to   raids    and    general  discontent, 
insecurity  and  unrest,  trade  was  bad.     The  poorer  folk 
suffered  reverses,  and  lost  what  little  they  had.     They 
had  to  borrow.     Pay-day  came  when  the  bills  fell  due, 
and  they  could  find  the  wherewithal  nowhere ;  and  in 
obedience  to  the  harsh  laws  of  debt  then  existing  the 
debtor's    land    and    family    and    person    successively 
became  the  property  of  his  creditors.     Everywhere  was 
misery,  and  with  it  rose  a  spirit  of  rebellion  which  was 
dangerous  to  the  state. 

Nothing  imperils  the   security  of  a   country  more 
than  the  existence  of  a  large  ill-treated  and  discontented 
class.     It    vents    itself   in    strikes    and,   in  soion's 
extreme  cases,  in  revolutions.     But  the  upper  remedy, 
and    well-to-do    classes,    who,    being    alarmed    at    an 
occasional  escape  of  steam,  had  resolved  to  sit  firmly 
down  on  the  safety-valve,  with  the  deluded  notion  that 
all  that  was  required  to  check  pressure  from  below  was 
more  repression  from  above,  began  to  suspect  that  all 
was  not  well  in  their  theory,  and  before  it  was  too  late, 
asked  Solon's  advice.     He  was  a  poet  and  a  patriot,  a 
member  of  the  ruling  class  but  beloved  and  respected 
by  the  masses,  possessing  both  resolution  and  sympa- 
thetic imagination.    He  promptly  dragged  the  governing 
class    from    their   perilous   position,   and   reduced   the 
seething  discontent   by  uncompromising  measures   of 

o 


194  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

relief  It  is  hardly  likely  that  he  altogether  cancelled 
all  existing  debts,  ^hich  step  ^^ould  have  been  very 
unfair  to  creditors.  But  he  cancelled  all  bonds  by 
xvhich  the  debtor's  land  or  family  or  person  became  the 
property  of  the  creditor,  and  made  it  legaUy  impossible 
in  future  to  enter  into  any  such  contract.  The  mortgage- 
pillars  disappeared  from  the  land,  where  once  more 
families,  which  if  poor  were  at  least  free  and  hopeful, 
took  the  place  of  dispirited  and  rebellious  serfs.     ^ 

The  country  breathed  again.     It  had  been  given  a 
fresh  start  in  life.     No  doubt,  some  creditors  were  hard 
hit     But  the  general  advantage  so  far  out- 
SoWs  new    ^^^^^^^  ^^^  inconvenience  of  a  few,  that  by 
stitution.      general  consent  Solon  was  pressed  to  under- 
take a  reorganization  of  the  whole  constitution.     Not 
to  eo  into  too  much  detail,  he  re-divided  the  entire 
population  on  a  new  principle.     The  people  were  dis- 
tributed in  four  classes,  with  no  regard   to   ^i^th   or 
occupation,  but  solely  according  to  their  income,     ihe 
first  three  classes  were  liable  to  a  graduated  mcome-tax, 
the  lowest  class  paid  no  direct  taxes  at  all,  but  all  were 
of  course  subject  to  indirect  taxes.     This  principle  was 
called  Timocratic  (Greek  r^iu// =  value  or  assessment). 
Solon  also  created  a  Council  of  four  hundred  members, 
elected  from  the  larger  general  assembly  of  citizens,  to 

act  as  a  committee  for  it.  -r.      •     i 

He  laid  down  several  beneficial  rules.  For  instance, 
in  any  time  of  serious  national  dissension,  any  man 
Some  new  who  did  not  make  up  his  mind  and  take  a 
laws.  side  was  to  lose   his  property  and  citizen- 

rights  A  thief  when  convicted  was  to  restore  double 
th°e  value  stolen.  Every  father  was  bound  by  law  to 
teach  his  son  a  trade.  If  he  failed  in  this  duty,  his  son 
was  exempted  from  any  legal  obligation  to  assist  him  m 
his  old  age.     The  calendar  was  revised  and  put  right  as 


THE  LAWGIVERS 


195 


far  as  the  state  of  science  at  the  time  allowed.  Finally, 
Solon  caused  all  his  enactments  to  be  inscribed  on 
wooden  rollers  and  boards,  and  exhibited  in  a  public 
place  so  that  all  who  cared  might  read. 

It  is  easy  to  see  what  a  practical  business-like  mind 
was  Solon's.  He  liked  the  administration  of  the  law  to 
be  straightforward  and  above  board,  so  that  every  one 
knew  where  he  was  and  could  appeal  against  injustice. 
He  saw  that  a  country  cannot  ijrosper  economically  if 
it  is  clogged  with  loafers  who  know  no  trade  and  can  be 
efficient  at  nothing,  and  serve  only  to  swell  the  ranks  of 
the  unemployed,  who  very  soon  become  the  unemploy- 
ables.  The  same  truth  was  realized  again  in  the  middle 
ages,  and  gave  rise  to  guilds  and  compulsory  apprentice- 
ship. Li  politics  Solon  could  not  abide  the  ''mug- 
wumps," who  stand  aside  while  others  fight  it  out,  and 
then,  whichever  side  wins,  comi^lain  that  it  is  the 
wrong  one.  He  wanted  to  force  all  men  to  take  an 
interest  in  the  politics  of  their  country,  and  to  think 
questions  out  for  themselves. 

But  Athens  could  not  stand  still.     Solon's  constitu- 
tion was    only  transitional,   and    the    progress    must 
continue.     Once  set  rolling,  the  democratic 
ball  is  not  to  be  checked  but  gathers  pace  as  ^^®^^*^®^®^- 
it  goes.     Eighty-five  years  later  (509  b.c),  the  year  of 
the  birth  of  the  Eepublic  in  Eome  under  the  auspices 
of  Brutus,  Cleisthenes  added  his  quota  of  reform  to  the 
constitution,  and  made  Athens  a  complete  democracy. 
So  soon  as  the  Tyrant  Hippias  was  gone,  the  nobles 
were  at  their  old  tricks  again.     Cleisthenes,  himself  one 
of  them,   championed   the   cause  of   the    people,   but 
instead  of  making  them  suit  his  purj)oses  he  served 
theirs.      As    Herodotus    says,    **He    took    the   people 
into    partnership."      A    tyrant    exploited    the    people 
for    the    benefit    of    *' number    one"   first;    but   this 


19G 


THE  ANCIENT  "WORLD 


*    - 

6 


was   a    profit-sharing    venture    with     Cleisthenes     as 

manager.  . 

There  is  no  need  for  much  detail.     The  mam  object 

which  he  set  himself  was   to  break  once  for  all  the 

power   of  the   nobles.     Then,   as   now,   the 

fan'downing   nobles,  who  Were  great  landowners,  wielded 

nobility        enormous  influence,  social  and  political,  by 

Tlffllf  fill  4  1  •       J.        *        i_ 

their  possession  of  great  estates.  A  district, 
even  a  whole  tribe,  would  follow  the  lead  of  the  local 
territorial  magnates.  Cleisthenes  once  for  all  broke 
this  local  influence.  He  abolished  the  four  tribes  of 
Attica,  which  were  somewhat  like  clans,  and  re-divided 
the  entire  population,  including  new  settlers,  into  ten 
new  tribes,  which  had  no  connexion  whatever  with 
clans  or  any  historical  association.  Each  of  these  ten 
tribes  was  in  its  turn  sub-divided  into  ten  parishes. 
But  now  mark  the  ingenuity  of  the  man.  The  ten 
parishes  of  one  tribe  were  not  contiguous ;  for  in  that 
case,  the  old  evil  of  local  infiuence  and  leadership  would 
have  raised  its  head  again.  No,  the  ten  parishes  com- 
posing each  of  the  new  tribes  were  carefully  scattered 
up  and  down  the  country,  so  that  no  two  were  neigh- 
bours. Each  parish  was  thus  surrounded  by  parishes 
belonging  to  other  tribes,  with  other  interests.  Thus 
local  "combination  was  prevented,  and  the  influence  of 
the  local  magnate  was  undermined. 

The  parishes  of  the  same  tribe  wishing  to  transact 
business  with  one  another  were  compelled  to  do  so  at 
One  capital  Athens.  Athens  was  now  the  only  common 
—Athens,  centre.  It  became  the  real  social,  political, 
rehgious,  and  commercial  capital  of  the  land.  Besides 
breaking  up  petty  local  patriotism  it  magnified  the 
importance  of  the  common  centre.  The  Acropolis  took 
the  place  of  the  village  pump  as  the  centre  of  the 
national  life 


THE  •  LAWGIVERS 


197 


Many  more  changes  were  made  by  successive  states- 
men, as  for  instance,  Pericles,  before  Athens  became  a 
tborough-going  out-and-out  democracy.  But  Democracy 
tbe  parocbial  ring-fences  were  down,  and  the  con^piete. 
social  walls  were  breached  ;  and  Athens  had  started  on 
its  brilliant  career — short-lived  physically,  but  exercising 
its  mental  and  moral  sway  to  our  own  day. 

In  the  West,  too,  the  republican  stage  of  development 
was  reached,  and  by  similar  steps.    After  all,  Italy  is 
not  so  very  far  removed  from   Greece  geo- 
graphically—there is  only  the  Ionian  sea  to  f^^r 
separate  them — and  we   have   already  seen  develop- 
how,  when   the   Aryans  invaded  Greece,  or  ^^^  ' 
soon  after,  another  wave  of  the  same  invasion  swept 
down  into  Italy.     The  inhabitants  of  the  two  neighbour- 
peninsulas  were  themselves  not  merely  neighbours  but 
near  relatives.      And  politically,  as  might  have  been 
expected,  the  course  of  progress  on  the  two  sides  of  the 
dividing  sea,  was  very  similar. 

Rome,  like  Athens,  tired  of  her  kings  of  the  primitive 
Homeric  type  and  shook  them  off,  exchanging  their  rule 
for  a  republic.    But  it  must  not  be  supposed 
that  the  form  of  government  was  all  at  once  succeeded 
changed  from  a  partially  Hmited  monarchy  ^^  ^}j" 
to  a  fully  developed   democracy.      The  ex- 
pulsion of  the   kings    {licgifughim)   was   a   revolution 
brought  about,  not  by  the  people,  but  by  the  nobles,  and 
these,  when  once  the  monarch,  who  was  exalted  high 
above  all  and  claimed  equal  obedience  from  all  alike, 
was  removed,  assumed  the  reins   of  government,  and 
freely  indulged  the  domineering  instinct  which  had  till 
then  been  kept  in  check  by  the  overshadowing  authority 
of  the  throne.     It  was  not  a  democracy  but  an  oligarchy 
which  now  had  the  control  of  affairs ;    the  people  had 
exchanged  the  rule  of  one  for  that  of  many  masters, 


198 


THE   ANCIENT  AVORLD 


and  from  the  people's  point  of  view,  it  was  not  a  change 
for  the  hettar.  As  in  England,  during  the  practical 
abeyance  of  the  royal  authority  under  Stephen,  and 
during  the  reigns  of  other  weak  kings,  the  commons 
were  oppressed  by  the  "barons,"  so  the  people  of  Borne 
found  that  the  abolition  of  the  monarchy  left  them 
exposed  to  the  tyranny  and  greed  of  a  wealthy  and  arro- 
gant nobility  who  now  recognized  no  master. 

The  result  was  the  struggle  between  the  Patricians 
and  the  Plebeians,  which  continued  for  two  centuries  and 
Patricians  ^^  familiar  to  all  readers  of  Roman  history, 
and  To  put  the  whole  matter  in  a  nutshell,  the 

e  eians.  l^atricians  were  those  who  had  been  first  on 
the  spot  to  peg  out  their  claims  in  the  rising  state,  and 
had  got  their  names  on  the  register  of  the  new  society 
before  the  lists  were  for  ever  closed.  They  owned  the 
land,  and,  on  the  strength  of  this  ownership,  claimed 
to  own  the  people  too,  and  to  keep  the  government  to 
themselves  as  their  undisputed  monopoly.  The  Plebeians, 
who  were  the  late-comers,  and  whom  the  Patricians 
affected  to  regard  as  supernumeraries  and  **  outsiders,'* 
realizing  that  they  outnumbered  the  exclusive  aristo- 
crats, and  doing  most  of  the  work  of  the  community 
were  an  indispensable  portion  of  it,  claimed  their  fair 
share  of  rights  and  opportunities. 

By  the  very  modern  device  of  a  general  strike, 
threatening  to  emigrate  and  found  a  new  state  of  their 

First  steps  ^^^'"'  ^^^^^  obtained  the  appointment  of  officers 
towards  called  **  Tribunes,"  who  should  be  their  own 
eqnahty.  special  protectors  against  unjust  treatment  by 
their  rulers  (494  b.c).  This  was  a  step  in  the  right 
direction,  but  it  was  merely  negative  and  defensive. 
Something  more  positive  and  active  was  needed. 
Twenty-three  years  later  (471  b.c.)  they  possessed  their 
own  recognized  assembly.     That,  too,  was  something. 


THE   LAWGIVERS 


199 


They  were  getting  on.  But  still  a  further  step  must  be 
taken  before  the  people  could  be  free ;  and  this  chapter 
would  be  incomplete  without  some  account  of  it,  how- 
ever brief,  although  it  should  lead  us  on  somewhat  in 
advance  of  the  point  reached  in  the  history  of  Greece 
and  the  East. 

As  in  Greece,  so  in  Rome,  the  state  had  to  pass 
through  the  intermediate  stage  of  *'  Tyranny,"  before  it 
could  complete  the  transition  from  Oligarchy  The  Twelve 
to  Democracy.  The  wished-for  opportunity  tables, 
came.  After  strenuous  agitation  on  the  part  of  a  tribune 
called  Arsa,  the  Patricians  were  finally  forced  to  con- 
sent to  the  popular  demand  that  the  law  of  the  land 
should  be  fixed  and  plainly  written  down  for  all  to  read 
and  know.  Mark  the  procedure.  Envoys  were  sent  to 
Athens,  and  other  Greek  states,  both  in  Greece  and  in 
southern  Italy,  to  investigate  and  report.  On  their 
return,  with  abundance  of  materials  and  ideas,  a  Com- 
mission of  Ten  was  appointed  to  consider  and  draw  up 
the  new  code.  The  laws  (451  b.c.)  were  duly  formulated 
in  beautifully  clear  and  terse  language  and  painted  or 
carved  on  ten  tables  of  wood,  which  were  erected  in  a 
prominent  place  in  the  Forum.  In  the  following  year 
(450)  two  more  tables  were  added,  thus  completing  the 
code,  which  has  been  known  ever  since  as  the  Law  of 
the  Twelve  Tables.  Many  of  the  statutes  were  simply 
translations  of  the  laws  of  Solon.  The  Tables  were 
short,  because  very  much  of  the  common  law  of  Rome 
was  tal\en  for  granted  and  so  not  even  mentioned. 
They  were  destroyed,  it  appears,  by  the  Gauls  (390  b.c), 
but  immediately  afterwards  restored,  and  contained  the 
"Great  Charter"  of  Rome  and  the  foundation-rock  of 
all  Roman  Law.  Without  going  into  details,  it  may  be 
said  that  the  laws  were  of  the  hard-and-fast  type, 
admitting  no  exceptions,  and  that,  like  all  early  codes, 


200 


THE   ANCIENT  WOELD 


they  were  singularly  free  from  any  resemblance  to  the 
"milk  of  human  kindness."  But,  at  any  rate,  offences 
were  defined  and  penalties  fixed,  and  the  law  was  now 
the  same  for  all — beyond  question  no  small  gain. 

But  now  for  the  all-important  event  hinted  at  above, 
by  which  the  democracy  was  completed.  While  the 
"Tyranny"  Commission  of  Ten  (called  *'  the  Decemvirs  ") 
of  Appius  were  sitting  for  the  purpose  of  drawing  up 
Claudius.  ^j^^  Great  Charter,  all  the  ordinary  magi- 
stracies and  forms  of  government  were  suspended.  The 
Ten  were  making  the  law  and  were  also  administering 
it.  Now  it  is  clear  that  the  fixing  and  writing  out  of 
the  law  was  a  severe  blow  to  the  privileged  governing 
class  of  the  Patricians,  who  till  then  had  interpreted 
and  administered  unchecked  an  unwritten  law  to  suit 
their  own  advantage.  Though  himself  a  Patrician, 
Appius  Claudius,  the  chief  of  the  Ten,  had  clearly  con- 
stituted himself  a  champion  of  the  people,  against  the 
more  uncompromising  majority  of  his  own  class.*  It 
was  the  story  of  the  *'  Tyrant "  once  more.  Once  firmly 
seated,  he  began  to  abuse  his  power,  over  which  there 
was  now  no  check  of  tribune  or  other  magistrate.  The 
temptations  of  unlimited  power  had  once  more  proved 
too  strong  for  human  nature. 

But  the  end  came  quickly.  Lust  and  violence  pre- 
cipitated his  downfall.  He  claimed  Virginia  as  a  sacri- 
fice to  his  unlawful  passion ;  her  father  in 
despair  slew  her,  cutting  short  her  life  to  save 
her  honour,  and  the  people  in  furious  indignation  rose  in 
a  mass,  flew  to  arms,  and  drove  out  Appius  and  the  rest 
of  the  Ten  into  ignominious  exile. 

Then,  once  again,  by  a  general  strike  they  wrested 
froln  the  Patrician  council  concessions  which  set  the 
seal   on   their   liberty.      The   Tribunes   were    restored 

*  See  Mommscn's  "  History  of  Home,"  vol,  I. 


Virginia. 


THE  LAWGIVEKS 


201 


and  the  resolutions  of  the  people  in  their  own  assembly 
were  now  to  be  binding  on  the  whole  com-  lex  Valeria 
munity   and  constitute  the  law  of  the    land  Horatia, 
(449  B.C.  Lex  Valeria  Horatia).  ^^^  ^•^• 

Thus,  while  in  point  of  time  lagging  a  little  behind 
the  Athenian  democracy,  and  owing  not  a  little  tj  its 
teaching  and  example,  in  Eome,  too,  a  strong  and 
resolute  republic  was  starting  on  its  fateful  career. 


CHAPTER  XIII 


THE   UNCHANGING    EAST 


1300-500  (B.C.) 


It  is  the  fashion  to  say  that  the  East  is  **  stationary.'* 
This  chapter  may  perhaps  serve  as  a  commentary  on 
this  fallacy. 

When  Inst  we  glanced  at  China,  it  was  heing  ruled 
hy  emperors  of  the  Shang,  or  Yin,  Dynasty,  who  were 
China  •  ^^^^  exceedingly  husy  resisting  the  encroach- 

miiitary  ments  of  the  Hiung-nu,  prohahly  the  Huns, 
duchies.  rjijjg  better  to  repel  these  intruders,  military 
duchies  were  estahlished  along  the  frontier,  the  most 
distinguished  of  which  was  the  Duchy  of  Chou.  A  great 
Duke  of  Chou,  Won-wang,  won  fame  hy  daring  to 
rehuke  his  sovereign  to  his  face,  for  which  his  master's 
offended  majesty  cast  him  into  prison,  and  by  composing 
in  his  cell  a  book  (the  I-King)  which  is  reputed  the 
oldest  existing  piece  of  Chinese  literature.  His  son, 
Chou  Wu-wang,   achieved  still   greater  success  in 

dynasty.  g^  fj^j.  j^ore  comfortable  way  by  raising  him- 
self to  the  imperial  throne  and  founding  the  illustrious 
Chou  dynasty  which  ruled  China  uninterruptedly  for 
nearly  nine  hundred  years,  to  249  b.c. 

Under  his  organization,  China  somewhat  resembled 
The.Ceies-  the  German  Empire.  The  several  states,  each 
tiai  Empire,  ruled  by  a  noble  of  importance,  were  federated 
under  a  liege-lord  styled  "The  Sen  of  Heaven,"  and 

202 


THE  UNCHANGING  EAST 


203 


the  whole  confederation  bore  the  name  of  the  "  Celestial 
Empire."  The  laws  were  most  rigid,  and  claimed  to 
regulate  not  only  public  conduct  but  even  every  detail 
of  private  life.  With  the  advent  of  this  dynasty  (1122 
B.C.)  we  are  on  the  solid  ground  of  authentic  history. 
The  line  comprised  in  all  thirty-five  sovereigns.  One  of 
them,  Mu-wang,  in  the  tenth  century  b.c,  carried  the 
Celestial  standards  into  the  far  West  and  made  the 
**Dog  Barbarians,"  probably  the  Huns,  feel  the  weight 
of  his  strong  arm.  The  good  work  was  continued  in 
the  ninth  and  eighth  centuries. 

In  the  reign  of  Yu-wang,  a  monarch  noted  for  his 
lasciviousness,  occurred  a  solar  eclipse,  which  was  care- 
fully recorded.  The  event  has  been  fixed  as  Eclipse  of 
happening  on  August  29,  776  b.c,  and  is,  of  '^'^^  ^^' 
course,  most  useful  as  a  landmark  in  Chinese  chronology. 
The  reader  will  not  need  to  be  reminded  in  passing  that 
776  B.C.  was  the  first  year  of  the  first  Olympiad  which 
marked  the  beginning  of  dated  history  in  Greece. 

In  the  course  of  the  seventh  century  b.c,  the  Chinese 
Emperor's  authority  gradually  waned,  till  he  was  merely 
the   nominal   head  of   the   confederation   of  Disruption 
states.     The    binding  cement  was   loosened  of  the 
more   and    more    till    the   unwieldy  empire    °^p^^®* 
became  a  collection  of  separate  and   rival   kingdoms. 
Five  of  these  stood  out  pre-eminently  above  the  rest, 
and  for  the  next  few  centuries  took  it  in  turns  to  possess 
a  temporary  hegemony.     China  at  that  time  was  not 
very  much    unlike    Saxon   England,   broken   up    into 
numerous  kingdoms  over  which  Mercia,  Northumbria, 
or  Wessex,  at  different  times  exercised  a  more  or  less 
acknowledged  supremacy. 

But  a  far  more  interesting  event  for  after  years  than 
these  rivalries  was  the  appearance  on  the  scene  of 
Confucius  (Kung  Futze,  551-178  b.c).     Confucius,  the 


204 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE   UNCHANGING  EAST 


205 


/ 


eleventh  child  and  second  son  of  Shuh-liang-Heih,  who 
was  over  seventy  at  the  time  of  the   hoy*s  birth,  was 

Confucius  ^^^^  ^^  *^^^  state  of  Lu,  a  part  of  the  modern 
Shantung,  in  troublous  times.  He  very 
early  gave  signs  of  devotion  to  music  and  antiquarian 
learning.  As  soon  as  he  was  old  enough  to  reflect  on 
what  he  saw  around  him,  he  realized  that  the  times 
were  out  of  joint,  and  that  there  was  **  something  rotten 
in  the  state  "  of  China.  Everywhere  was  anarchy,  social 
and  political.  Governors  smothered  their  consciences, 
subjects  forgot  their  loyalty,  and  children  did  not  obey 
their  parents.  Eespect  for  law,  human  or  divine,  was 
fast  decaying.  Accordingly  he  vowed,  and  never  swerved 
from  his  purpose,  to  make  it  his  life's  work  to  reform 
and  save  his  country.  He  could  boast  of  a  long  and 
illustrious  descent  from  the  ancient  Shang  dynasty,  but 
was  born  and  died  poor. 

Once  or  twice  he  held  high  office,  but  more  often 
refused  it,  and  always  sacrificed  his  purse  to  his  con- 
Hi8  prin-  science.  He  never  laid  any  claim  to  any 
cipies.  divine  mission  or  dmne  inspiration,  but  did 

claim  to  have  studied  and  thought  deeply  on  the  past, 
and  to  have  found  the  secret  of  good  government  and 
happiness  for  state  and  individual.  He  had  no  wish  to 
sit  on  a  throne,  but  to  stand  behind  it,  no  wish  to  hold 
a  sceptre,  but  to  hold  the  hand  that  held  it.  He  used 
to  boast  that  if  only  he  could  induce  a  ruler  to  submit 
to  his  direction  for  a  year,  he  would  achieve  much,  and 
if  the  year  were  extended  to  three,  then  his  highest 
hopes  for  the  world  would  be  realized.  But  the  experi- 
ment was  never  tried.  Most  of  his  life  was  spent  in 
wanderings,  in  which  a  chosen  body  of  disciples 
accompanied  him,  in  the  search  for  a  ruler  who  would 
give  his  doctrines  a  chance.  But  it  was  in  vain,  and 
he  died  unrecognized  and  disappointed;  and  yet  the 


extraordinary   reverence    paid    to   his    memory   began 
almost  immediately  after  his  death. 

If  we  had  to  summarize  this  remarkable  character 
very  briefly,  we  might  say  that  he  looked  back  rather 
than  forward.  True,  he  had  hope;  he  believed  His  cha- 
in the  fundamental  goodness  of  human  nature.  ^*cter. 
But  his  hopes  were  pinned  to  the  past.  He  was  the 
high-priest  of  conservatism.  He  believed  regeneration 
could  come  only  by  a  return  to  the  good  examples  of 
bygone  ages.  He  left  practically  no  writings  of  his 
own,  though  he  loved  literature,  and  made  some  in- 
valuable collections  of  ancient  writings,  which  he  was 
the  means  of  preserving  for  after-generations.  What 
little  writing  there  is  ascribed  to  his  pen  is  disappointing. 
He  had  a  firm  belief  in  the  potency  of  example  and 
constant  and  searching  introspection,  and  his  fame 
must  rest  chiefly,  if  not  entirely,  on  the  story  His 
of  his  life  and  his  recorded  sayings.  One  sayings, 
day,  when  in  exile,  he  saw  on  a  lonely  hillside  a  poor 
woman  wailing  over  a  grave,  and  inquired  the  cause  of 
her  grief.  The  woman's  husband,  her  husband's  father, 
and  her  son  had  all  been  killed  by  a  tiger  on  that  spot. 
When  asked  why  she  did  not  leave  the  fatal  spot,  she 
replied  that  in  that  district  there  was  no  oppressive 
government.  Turning  to  his  followers,  he  bade  them 
remember  the  lesson,  that  oppressive  government  was 
more  cruel  and  more  to  be  feared  than  a  tiger.  The 
story  is  an  instructive  side-light  on  the  character  of 
contemporary  government  in  parts  of  China.  He  was 
too  unselfish  and  sympathetic  to  have  any  belief  in  the 
monastic  idea.  It  was  impossible  for  a  man,  he  said, 
to  withdraw  from  the  world  and  keep  company  with 
birds  and  beasts.  His  proper  associates  were  suffering 
men;  his  efforts  should  be  devoted  to  healing  the 
world's  disorders.     Other  sayings  of  the  sage  were  : 


206 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


"  What  the  superior  man  seeks  is  in  himself.'* 

"Learning,  undigested  by  thought,  is  labour  lost: 
thought  unassisted  by  learning,  is  perilous."  How  often 
forgotten  and  how  necessary  a  truth  for  the  world  at 
this  day ! 

He  was  eminently  practical.  He  thought  there  was 
not  much  to  be  gained  by  exercising  the  mind  and 
spending  its  energy  on  questions  too  difficult  to  solve. 
His  concern  was  with  the  present  world.  The  other  he 
left  to  take  care  of  itself.  On  ancestor-worship  and 
immortality  he  kept  his  own  counsel.  Wisdom  he 
defined  as  giving  oneself  earnestly  to  the  duties  due 
to  men ;  and  argued  that  until  we  know  life,  we  cannot 
know  anything  about  death.  But  perhaps  the  most 
famous  and  most  fruitful  of  his  sayings  was  the  Golden 
Eule,  **  Whatever  you  do  not  like  done  to  yourself,  do 
not  do  it  to  others." 

His  doctrines  constitute  what  we  should  call  a 
philosophy  rather  than  a  **  religion."  But  no  single 
man  has  exercised  a  greater  and  more  lasting  influence 
on  China  than  its  honoured  sage  Confucius. 

Coming  a  little  nearer  home,  what  do  we  find  in 
India  ?  The  Aryan  invaders  on  settling  down  in  their 
India  ^^^  conquests  had  developed  an  elaborate 

The  division    into   castes.      In    Delhi    and    the 

Brahmans.  ^Quj^j^j-y  round  the  Brahmans— that  is,  the 
priestly  caste — had  grown  into  a  compact,  well-organized, 
highly  educated,  and  powerful  body,  arrogating  to  itself 
the  right  to  dictate  rules  of  life  and  belief  to  all  their 
brother  Aryans. 

For  centuries  this  kind  of  Papal  claim  passed  un- 
challenged. But  at  thetimewhenConfuciuswas 
^  ^  *■  making  his  protest  against  corrupt  govern- 
ment in  China,  a  great  religious  revolt  was  being  in- 
augurated in  India  by  Gautama  Buddha.     The  two  men 


THE   UNCHANGING  EAST 


207 


were  probably  almost  exact  contemporaries.  Besides 
being  divided  into  four  great  castes  of  Priests,  Warriors, 
Husbandmen,  and  Labourers,  the  Aryans  of  India  were 
broken  up  into  a  large  number  of  small  states,  each 
ruled  by  its  own  petty  Eaja.  At  Kapilavastu,  north  of 
Benares,  there  reigned  one  of  these  Rajas,  His  birth 
Suddhodana,  over  the  tribe  of  Sakyas.  After  ^^^  ^*°^®- 
many  long  years  of  waiting  and  disappointment,  he  at 
last  became  the  father  of  a  son,  whom  he  called  Sidd- 
hartha — the  name  Gautama  was  the  family  name,  and 
Buddha  is  not  a  name,  but  an  adjective  meaning  **  En- 
lightened." He  was  married  at  the  age  of  nineteen  to 
Yasodhara,  and  had  a  son  Rahula.  At  first  he  enjoyed 
the  ease  and  luxury  to  which  his  rank  and  wealth 
entitled  him.  But  ten  years  later,  the  sights  His 
he  saw  in  the  world  around  of  old  age,  misery,  "^i^stry. 
and  disease,  so  deeply  stirred  his  kindly  feelings  that 
after  a  severe  struggle  with  his  own  soul  he  resolved 
to  abandon  rank,  wealth,  pleasure,  father,  wife,  child, 
home,  everything,  in  order  to  go  out  among  his  fellow- 
men  and  teach  them  the  way  of  deliverance  and  happi- 
ness. He  on  two  great  occasions  at  least  experienced  in 
his  own  person  the  power  of  temptation,  and  though  he 
successfully  resisted  it  and  came  out  of  the  ordeal 
strengthened  and  **  enlightened,"  he  realized  that  there 
were  probably  many  who  might  not  be  so  fortunate. 
He  therefore  resolved  to  go  out  and  instruct  them.  He 
broke  all  the  ties  that  bound  him  to  earth,  and  for  the 
rest  of  his  life  was  a  penniless  wandering  missionary, 
living  on  alms,  and  imposing  a  like  rule  on  his  disciples, 
whom  he  addressed  as  "  Beloved  mendicants." 

It  would  be  impossible  in  these  pages  to  enter  into  a 
full  description  or  discussion  of  Buddhism  or  of  the 
recorded  life  of  Buddha.  His  own  conception  of  his 
mission  was  to  establish  the  kingdom  of  righteousness 


208 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


Nirvana. 


upon  the  cartli,  to  give  light  to  them  that  sit  in  darkness, 
and  open  the  gate  of  immortaHty  to  all  men.  There 
Buddhism  ^^  ^  curious  ring  as  of  the  New  Testament 
and  Chris-  in  tliose  Sentences.  It  is  not  uncommon  to 
tiamty.  Iiqq^^  comparison  made  hetween  Buddhism 
and  Christianity,  with  laying  of  emphasis  on  their 
points  of  resemblance.  But  reflexion  will  reveal  an 
essential  inferiority  in  the  older  creed.  Pat  quite 
briefly,  Buddha's  doctrine  was  that  existence  is  always 
necessarily  accompanied  by  misery — everything  which 
exists  is  liable  to  sorrow  and  decay  ;  that  man  is  kept 
chained  down  to  the  material  world  by  the  moral  evil  of 
his  own  heart,  evil  thoughts  and  desires;  that  the  only 
road  to  happiness  is  by  breaking  this  chain  by  the  de- 
struction of  evil  desires  through  Nirvana  (i.e. 
Extinction).  The  convert  must  get  rid  of  all 
impure  desires,  all  revengeful  feelings,  all  ignorance, 
doubt  and  unkindliness.  Salvation  is  to  be  attained  not 
by  hard  work  and  study,  nor  by  mortification  of  tlie 
body,  but  the  mind  must  be  purified.  Be  pure,  was  the 
rule,  and  when  once  you  arc  pure,  your  eyes  will  be 
opened  and  you  will  know  all.  The  supreme  crown  of 
perfection  was  a  feeling  of  love  towards  all  men.  The 
achievement  of  this  ideal  was  the  achievement  of 
Nirvana  (Extinction).  In  the  religion  of  Buddha,  there 
was  no  need  of  priests.  Every  man  must  work  out  his 
own  salvation  by  his  own  sincere  efforts.  And  the  end 
was  Extinction.  There  was  no  soul  distinct  from  the 
perishable  parts  of  man,  and  no  after-life  of  happiness 
to  be  enjoyed. 

Thus  Buddha  taught  in  the  country  round  Benares, 
and  gradually  formed  a  body  of  disciples,  an  order  of 
mendicants,  who  renounced  all  worldly  goods.  Their 
rules  were  self-conquest  and  poverty.  They  must  beg 
their  meals  and  eat  only  sparingly,  and  only  between 


THE  UNCHANGING  EAST  209 

sunrise  and  noon.  They  must  live  away  ''from  the 
madding  crowd,"  in  forests,  if  possible.  They  must  be 
clothed  in  the  simplest  orange-coloured  garb,  and 
possess  only  one  change  of  clothes.  The  only  earthly 
goods  allowed  were  a  suit  of  clothes,  a  girdle,  an  alms- 
bowl,  a  razor,  a  needle,  and  a  water-strainer. 

Numberless  stories  are  told  of  Buddha's  ministry. 
For  forty-five  years  lie  walked  up  and  down  and 
preached,  and  died  apparently  of  sheer  exhaus-  sayings  of 
tion  at  the  age  of  eighty.  On  his  deathbed  Buddha, 
he  reminded  his  disciples  that,  though  he  himself  might 
pass  away,  his  words  remained  with  them  to  guide 
them,  and  that  if  they  wished  to  show  respect  for  his 
memory  they  must  love  one  another  as  they  loved  him. 
And  on  another  occasion  he  said,  in  describing  his 
gospel,  that  Faith  was  the  seed.  Self-combat  the  life- 
nurturing  rain,  the  ties  and  cares  of  this  world  the 
weeds  which  had  to  be  destroyed ;  Wisdom  his  plough, 
guided  by  Modesty  and  drawn  by  Perseverance ;  while 
the  field  of  his  labour  was  the  Law,  and  the  harvest 
that  he  reaped  the  never-dying  nectar  of  Nirvana. 

Nirvana!     There  lies  at  once  the  beauty  and  the 
blemish  of  Buddhism.    It   was   not   an   ''impelling" 
religion.     It  said,  "  Extinguish  your  inferior 
nature."    But  this  which  should  have  been  ^''^'"'°'- 
merely  a  preliminary,  a  clearing  of  the  ground,  was 
Itself  the  be-all  and  the  end-all  of  religion.    But  before 
Confucius  or  Buddha  was  born,  away  to  the  west,  in  the 
diminutive  country  of  Palestine,  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah 
had  uttered  a  far  more  touching  and  loftier  and  more 
inspiring  appeal  than  either  of  them  for  personal  con- 
version  and   for  righteousness  founded  on  loving  de- 
votion.    That  was  a   religion  with    a   driving  power: 
Buddhism  was  self-centred  and  self-absorbed,  and  merely 
negative. 


210  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

It  would  be  superfluous  to  narrate  here  the  events 
which  had  occurred  in  Jewish  history  after  the  death  of 
Solomon.  The  complete  and  detailed  account 
ThelwT  ill  the  Bible  is  familiar  to  all.  The  kingdom 
rival  king-  of  David  and  Solomon  had  been  split  into  two, 
^°°'''  Israel  and  Judah,  each  with  its  own  rulers. 

They  both  had  a  short  and  chequered  career.     Judah, 
the  smaller  of  the  two,  was  ruled  throughout  its  thi-ee 
and  a  half  centuries  by  one  unbroken  dynasty  of  the 
line  of  David  ;  it  had  more  easily  defended  frontiers  ;  it 
had  the  capital  with  the  palaces  and  the  great  Temple 
erected  by   its   Solomon    the   Magnificent.     With  the 
exception  of  a  sometimes   dormant   but   never  who  ly 
allayed  rivalry  with  its  northern  partner,  its  troubles 
were   mainly   internal    and  religious.     Israel,   on    the 
other  hand,  ruled  by  perpetually  changing  d3iia8ties, 
and  disquieted  by  recurring  usurpations  and  civil  strife, 
had  no  acknowledged  religious  centre,  no  settled  policy, 
and,  worse  than  all,  no  secure  frontiers.     It  maintained 
existence  for  two  centuries  only,  and  during  practically 
all  that  time  it  was  exposed  to  invasion,  first  by  Syria, 
and  then  by  the  more  formidable  Assyria.     The  vain 
and  reckless  Ahab  (876-854  b.c),  ^v'ith  all  his  faults 
had  an  eye  for  diplomacy.     He  married  the  daughter  of 
the  King  of  Sidon,  thus  securing  an  ally  on  the  north, 
while  his  daughter  Athaliah  was  married  to  the  King  of 
Judah,  which  union   freed  him  from   anxiety  on  his 

southern  frontier.  . 

For  a  time,  but  it  was  short,  the  two  kingdoms 
presented  a  united  front  to  the  common  enemy  Syria, 
and  all  went  well.  But  the  excesses  of  Jezebel  and  the 
consequent  revolution  headed  by  Jehu  made  an  irre- 
parable breach  between  the  two  kingdoms.  Israel  was 
left  to  face  Syria  alone,  with  the  inevitable  result, 
incursions  and  losses.     Jehu  was  conquered  and  made 


THE  UNCHANGING  EAST 


211 


Assyria. 


tributary  by  Shalmaneser  II.,  as  is  recorded  on  the 
''Black  Obelisk,"  once  set  up  by  him  at  Calah,  and  now 
standing  in  the  British  Museum.  Eor  one  brief  period, 
at  the  time  when  the  first  walls  of  Eome  were  rising  on 
the  Palatine,  Jeroboam  11.  (782-740  b.c.)  rolled  back  the 
enemy  from  his  doors  and  made  his  kingdom  as  safe 
and  prosperous  as  it  had  been  in  its  best  days.  But 
it  was  only  a  deceptive  calm  before  the  real  storm. 
By  hitting  Syria,  Israel  had  unconsciously  done  the 
work  and  paved  the  way  for  a  far  more  redoubtable 
foe. 

As  we  have    already   seen,   when   Joshua  led   the 
Israelites  into  Canaan,  Shalmaneser  I.,  King  of  Assyria, 
claimed  to  represent  the  mightiest  power  in 
Western  Asia.     He  humbled  the  Hittites  and 
founded  Calah  (now  called  Nimriid)  on  the  Tigris  not  far 
from  Nineveh ;  and  Assyria  stepped  into  the  place  lately 
occupied  by  Babylonia  (c.  1300  b.c).  Assyria  was  nothing 
if  not  warlike.     Tiglath-Pilessr  I.  (1120  b.c.)  invaded 
Armenia  and  Cappadocia,  and  was  a  great  hunter.     The 
empire,  not  commercial  but  purely  military,  grew  apace. 
Shalmaneser  II.  (858-824),  a  contemporary  of  Ahab, 
made  his  capital,  Nineveh,  an  armed  camp.     Nothing 
was  given  a  thought  except  war  and  all  that  belonged 
to  it.     The  Assyrian  nation  was  one  great  army.     How 
difi'erent  from  its  neighbour  Babylon,  a  nation  of  priests 
and  traders !  Steel  proved  stronger  than  gold,  and  legions 
more  effective  than  ledgers ;   Babylon  was  taken  and 
plundered.     Then,  as  appetite  still  grew  with  eating, 
Shalmaneser  II.  turned  his  thoughts  westward,  defeated 
Ben-hadad   II.   of  Syria  (853  b.c.)  and  his   successor 
Hazael  (842  b.c).     Jehu   also,  who  slew  Jezebel  and 
succeeded  Ahab's  sons   on   the   throne  of  Israel,  was 
forced  to  bring  tribute  to  the  Assyrian  conqueror. 

Tiglath-Pileser  III.  (745-727  b.c),  called  ''  Pul,  King 


212 


THE  ANCIENT  WOULJ) 


of  Assyria"  in  the  Bible,*  consolitlated  and  organized 
Second  *^^^  ^^^^  ^^^  enlarged  Assyrian  Empire  (corn- 

Assyrian  monly  called  the  Second  Assyrian  Empire), 
°^^^^®'  and  in  729  b.c.  was  formally  proclaimed  in 
Babylon  as  the  **  Sovereign  Lord  of  Asia,"  but  died  two 
years  later.  It  will  be  remembered  how  he  was  bribed 
by  Ahaz,  King  of  Judah,  to  make  a  diversion  in  his 
favour  by  attacking  Eezin  of  Syria  and  Pekah  of 
Israel,  and  how  Ahaz  stripped  the  Temple  at  Jerusalem 
and  stooped  to  base  flattery  in  order  to  mollify  the 
terrible  aggressor.  His  son  Shalmaneser  IV.  (727-722) 
invaded  Israel  and  began  the  siege  of  Samaria,  which 
End  of  the  ^^^  taken  after  three  years  by  the  next  king, 
kingdom  of  the  usurper,  Sargon,  who  reigned  from  722  to 
705  B.C.  The  city  was  destroyed  and  its  in- 
habitants transplanted  in  a  body  to  Gozan,  in  northern 
Mesopotamia,  their  places  being  filled  by  a  medley  of 
people  from  the  eastern  dominions  of  Assyria  (722  b.c). 
Sargon's  son,  the  famous  Sennacherib  (705-681  b.c), 
was  both  a  conqueror  and  a  builder.  He  conquered 
Senna-  Phoenicia  and  Syria,  and  defeated  the  Eg3^p- 
chenb.  tians   at   Altaku   on   the  Egyptian   frontier. 

Then  he  destroyed  Babylon  (689  b.c),  which  had  again, 
as  so  often,  rebelled  against  its  master.  Meanwhile  he 
was  building  himself  a  magnificent  palace,  on  an  un- 
precedented scale  of  size  and  beauty,  which  has  been 
excavated  at  Koyunjik,  the  site  of  Nineveh.  Nineveh 
became  the  new  capital  of  the  empire,  and  was  a  fortified 
town  about  three  miles  long  by  about  one  and  a  half 
miles  broad.  Many  sculptured  panels  from  Sennacherib's 
palace  may  now  be  seen  at  the  British  Museum.  Among 
them  is  a  representation  of  his  siege  and  capture  of 
Lachish  in  Palestine.  Besides  taking  Lachish,  Senna- 
cherib, as    is   well   known   from  the  Bible,  made  two 

*  2  Kings  XV.  19 ;  1  Chron.  v.  26 ;  Isaiah  Ixvi.  19. 


THE   UNCHANGING  EAST 


213 


attempts   on   Jerusalem.     But  her  time  was  not  yet. 
On  the  first  occasion  he  was  bought  off.     The  British 
Museum  possesses  a  six-sided  baked  clay  cylinder  in- 
scribed^ with   Sennacherib's  account  of  this  ^^^^^ 
expedition  and  his  dealings  with  Hezekiah.  attack  on 
After  beating  the  Egyptians  at  Altaku,  and  ^'''''^^''^^ 
taking  Ekron   and   making    an    example   of  its   chief 
people,   he   besieged  "  Hezekiah  of  Judah "  and  took 
forty-six  strong  cities,  besides  many  smaller  ones,  from 
him   and  made  over  two  hundred  thousand  prisoners. 
Hezekiah  himself  ''  like  a  caged  bird  "  he  penned  within 
his  royal  city  of  Jerusalem,  and  was  only  induced  to 
spare  him  by  payment  of  an  enormous  bribe  of  gold, 
silver,  precious  stones,  eye-paint,  ivory,  hides  and  all 
manner  of  goods. 

The  second  attempt  to  reduce  Jerusalem  was  a  dead 
failure. 


The  Assyrian  came  down  like  the  wolf  on  the  fold, 
And  his  cohorts  were  gleaming  in  purple  and  gold  ; 
And  the  sheen  of  their  spears  was  like  stars  on  the  sea, 
When  the  blue  waves  roll  nightly  on  deep  Galilee. 

Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  Summer  is  green, 
That  host  with  their  banners  at  sunset  were  seen ; 
Like  the  leaves  of  the  forest  when  Autumn  hath  blown, 
That  host  on  the  morrow  lay  withered  and  strown. 

For  the  Angel  of  Death  spread  his  wings  on  the  blast, 
And  breathed  in  the  face  of  the  foe  as  he  passed  ; 
And  the  eyes  of  the  sleepers  waxed  deadly  and  chill, 
And  their  hearts  but  once  heaved,  and  for  ever  grew  still. 

And  there  lay  the  steed  with  his  nostril  all  wide, 
But  through  it  there  rolled  not  the  breath  of  his  pride  ; 
And  the  foam  of  his  gasping  lay  white  on  the  turf, 
And  cold  as  the  spray  of  the  rock-beating  surf. 

And  there  lay  the  rider  distorted  and  pale. 
With  the  dew  on  his  brow  and  the  rust  on  his  mail ; 
And  the  tents  were  all  silent,  the  banners  alone, 
The  lances  uplifted,  the  trumpet  unblown. 


Second 
attack  on 
Jerusalem. 


214 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


And  tho  widows  of  Asliur  arc  loud  in  their  wail, 
And  the  idols  are  broke  in  tho  temple  of  Baal ; 
And  the  might  of  the  Gentile,  iinsmote  hy  the  sword, 
Ilath  molted  like  snow  in  the  glance  of  tho  Lord  !  * 

Soiinaclieril)  went  home  foiled,  and  was  soon  after 
murdered  by  bis  own  sons.  Probably  the  murder  was 
instigated  by  the  priestly  caste,  for  we  find  his  son  and 
successor  Esarhaddon  (081-007  b.c.)  eagerly  restoring 
Babylon,  its  temples,  its  images,  and  its  priests. 

He  then  invaded  Egypt.  After  the  Exodus  of  the 
Hebrews  under  Moses  and  the  end  of  the  Nineteenth 
Egypt :  a  Dynasty  with  its  world-famous  Rameses  H. 
retrospect,     r^^^^i   ^^^   vacillating   ^[erenptah,    Egypt   was 

ruled  by  eleven  consecutive  Pharaohs  of  the  name  of 
Rameses,  and  an  equally  obscure  twenty-first  dynasty, 
containing  no  great  names.  The  great  days  of  Egypt 
were  over.  True,  Shishak  L,  of  the  twenty-second 
dynasty,  gave  a  home  to  the  exile  Jeroboam,  and  made 
a  demonstration  against  Jerusalem  to  divert  its  atten- 
tion from  him  while  he  was  establishing  his  new 
kingdom  of  Israel  (950  b.c).  But  Egypt  then  once 
more  withdrew  for  a  long  period,  over  two  centuries, 
from  the  stage  of  international  politics.  At  the  end  of 
that  time  it  returned  to  them.  As  it  had  helped  Jero- 
boam to  found  his  new  kingdom  of  Israel,  so  now,  at 
the  close  of  that  kingdom,  it  lent  a  hand  to  its  last 
king,  Hoshea,  and  intriguing  with  him  against  Assyria, 
attracted  the  attention  of  that  formidable  power. 
Sargon  had  his  eye  on  the  rich  prize  and  invaded  the 
land  of  the  Pharaohs,  defeating  Shabaka  (Sabaco  or  So) 
and  his  Philistine  allies  at  Raphia  in  711  b.c.  Egyptian 
history  now  becomes  part  of  the  histories  of  Assyria 
and  Persia. 

Esarhaddon,    Sargon's    grandson,    invaded    Egypt 

♦  BjTon,  "  Destruction  of  Sennacherib." 


THE  UNCHANGING  EAST 


215 


(074  i^.c.)  and  took  Memphis,  and  died  on  his  way  to 
crush  a  revolt  there.  Assur-bani-pal  turned  Decline  and 
east  and  attacked  Elam  (Persia).  But  Assyria  feUo^f^ 
was  doomed  :  the  days  of  the  great  bully  were  ^^^"** 
numbered.  Once  in  the  days  of  its  strength,  Sargon,  who 
took  Samaria,  had  taken  captive  Deioces,  the  first  king  of 
the  Modes;  but  times  had  changed,  and  as  the  grip  of 
the  Ninevite  government  relaxed,  its  subjects  began  to 
r^olt.  The  Scythians  and  Medes  came  swarming  down 
from  the  north,  and  Babylon,  so  long  oppressed,  rose  in 
the  south  under  its  viceroy  Nabo-polassar.  Together 
they  drove  the  Assyrians  in.  Nineveh  was  taken 
(000  B.C.)  and  razed  to  the  ground,  never  to  lift  its 
head  again.  Nineveh  had  been  on  the  east  what  Sparta 
was  in  the  west,  only  more  so.  It  was  an  armed  camp. 
Its  citizens  were  all  soldiers.  They  lived  for  war,  which 
they  had  reduced  to  an  art,  and  they  were  never  happy 
without  it.  They  were  more  aggressive  than  the  Spartans 
and  more  powerful,  and  had  become  the  terror  of  the 
world  around.  But  now  the  vaunted  Assyrian  Empire 
was  at  an  end,  and  Western  Asia  breathed  more  freely. 
It   was  as  though  the  country-side   had  been  rid  of  a 

man-eating  tiger. 

The    place    of    honour    was    taken    by    Nineveh's 
victorious  rival,  Babylon,  who  now  took  a  new  lease 
of  life  and  empire,  and  under  her  greatest  second 
monarch  Nebuchadnezzar  (005-501),  son  of  ^^^^^,7"^ 
the   destroyer   of   Nineveh,   was    undisputed  Nebuchad- 
mistress  of  Western  Asia.     Judah  had   ac-  ^®"^''' 
knowledged  the  suzerainty  of  Assyria,  and  now  that 
Josiah  had  lost  his  life  in  its  defence  at  Megiddo  and 
that  Assyria  itself  had  been  humbled  by  Babylon,  Judah 
without  a  murmur  at  first  transferred  its  allegiance  to 
the  new  dominant  power.     But  foolish  counsels  before 
long  prevailed,  and,  with  ridiculous  vanity,  the  tiny 


216 


THE   ANCIENT  WOKLD 


kingdom  did  not  hesitate  to  throw  down  the  gauntlet 
to  its  gigantic  neighbour.  There  could  he  hut  one 
end  to  such  a  conflict.  But  it  did  not  come  at  once. 
Nebuchadnezzar  played  with  Jerusalem  as  a  cat  plays 
with  a  mouse.  First  he  let  loose  on  it  its  vindictive 
End  of  the     neighbours,  Syrians  and  Moabites  and  what 

Judah°°^  °^  ^^*  *  *^^^  ^^^  ^^^^  himself  with  all  the  might 
of  Babylon,  took  Jerusalem,  carried  off  her 
king,  and  put  up  another  in  his  place;  and,  finally, 
when  the  idiotic  infatuation  of  Zedekiah  induced  him 
once  more  to  rely  on  the  *'  bruised  reed  "  Egypt  and  the 
support  of  the  Pharaoh  Hophra  (Apries)  to  shake  off 
the  Babylonian  yoke,  he  hurried  to  the  scene  of  revolt 
with  an  overwhelming  force,  and  settled  the  matter 
once  for  all.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  ceased  to  exist. 
Jerusalem  after  a  siege  of  eighteen  months  was  levelled 
with  the  dust  (587  b c),  and  the  inhabitants,  like  those 
of  Samaria  before  them  (722),  were  transported  in  a 
mass,  this  time  to  the  neighbourhood  of  Babylon.  The 
Israelites  ceased  to  exist  as  a  political  unit  in  the 
eastern  world. 

Once  more  we  are  forced  to  reflect  how  small  and 
closely-knit  the  world  really  was  even  in  that  remote  past. 
In  those  days,  as  in  these,  there  were  plenty  of  free- 
lances ready  to  take  service  in  foreign  armies,  because 
they  were  "crossed  in  love,"  or  "crazed  with  care,"  or 
disappointed  in  politics,  or  simply  fond  of  adventure. 
Nebuchadnezzar,  who  destroyed  Jerusalem  and  rebuilt 
Babylon,  had  among  his  multifarious  troops  a  brother 
of  the  Greek  poet  Alcaeus,  as  we  know  from  a  fragment 
of  poetry  in  which  he  celebrates  the  warrior's  return 
ho^ie,  the  proud  possessor  of  an  ivory-hilted,  gold-inlaid 
presentation  sword.  Alcaeus  was  a  contemporary  and 
friendly  rival  of  Sappho,  and  like  her  a  Lesbian.  Now 
the  brothers  fought,  together  with  the  famous  Pittacus, 


THE   UNCHANGING  EAST 


217 


against  the  Athenians  for  the  possession  of  a  colony 
near  the  site  of  Troy,  and  the  dispute  was  settled  by 
the  arbitration  of  Periander,  the  tyrant  of  Corinth. 
Periander,  to  go  a  step  further  west,  was  the  con- 
temporary of  Tarquin  the  Elder,  the  fifth  King  of 
Bome,  and  the  son  of  the  Corinthian  Demaratus, 
who,  being  one  of  the  aristocratic  Bacchiadae,  had  fled 
from  Corinth  when  C3^pselus,  Periander's  father,  became 
tyrant,  and  had  gone  to  Etruria,  with  which  Corinth 
had  commercial  relations.  Alcaeus  and  his  brothers, 
who  were  leaders  of  the  aristocratic  party  in  Mytilene, 
also  fought  against  the  local  tyrant.  But  fortune 
frowned  on  them,  and  they  fled  for  refuge  to  Egypt, 
where  they  lived  in  safety  during  the  reign  of  the  Pha- 
raoh Necho,  who,  it  will  be  remembered,  fought  and  slew 
Josiah,  King  of  Judah,  and  by  whose  directions  some 
Phoenician  sailors  circumnavigated  Africa,  doubling 
the  Cape  of  Good  Hope  twenty  centuries  before  Vasco 
da  Gama  ever  set  eyes  on  a  ship ! 

There  must  have  been  very  close  relations  between 
the  ruling  families  of  Corinth  and  Egypt  at  this  time, 
for  the  last  tyrant  of  Corinth,  Psammetichus,  ^gi^ti^^g 
who  was  overthrown  in  581  B.C.,  bore  the  between 
name  of  the  Pharaoh  (Psammetichus  II.),  who  and^bree^^*' 
immediately  preceded  the  Hophra  (AjDries), 
who  encouraged  Zedekiah  of  Jerusalem  to  revolt  against 
Nebuchadnezzar.  Psammetichus  I.,  founder  of  the 
twenty-sixth  dynasty  (670),  was  one  of  the  twelve 
kings  who  after  the  death  of  the  usurper  Setho,  had 
partitioned  Egypt,  forming  a  "  Dodecarchy,"  and,  beat- 
ing his  eleven  colleagues,  had  made  himself  sole  king 
by  the  help  of  Ionian  and  Carian  mercenaries — another 
early  link  with  the  Greeks.  And  so  on,  from  step  to 
step,  we  o'erleap  frontiers  azjd  "  put  a  girdle  round  the 
world," 


218 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE  UNCHANGING  EAST 


219 


' 


Nebuchadnezzar,  having  wiped  out  Judah,  went  on 
Glory  of  to  punish  its  more  important  ally ;  he  con- 
Babylon,  quered  Egypt  in  567  r.c,  and  made  it  part  of 
the  Babylonian  Empire,  which  was  now  at  the  height  of 
its  wealth  and  glory. 

Babylon  became  the  capital  of  the  eastern  world  and 
centre  of  its  commerce  and  wealth.  It  gathered  to 
itself 

the  gold  that  flows 
In  the  red  waters  of  the  furthest  east ; 
The  fragrant  balm  that  weeps  from  glittering  trees; 
The  ivory,  and  the  thin  and  snowy  robes 
Of  Egypt  ;  and  the  purple  merchandize 
Of  Sidon  ;  and  the  skins  of  beasts  that  far 
In  the  dark  forests  fly  the  sight  of  man  .  .  , 
And  slaves  of  every  hue  and  every  age.* 

The  great  city  had  trampled  all  her  enemies  under 
foot,  and  reigned  without  a  rival — 

Ammon's  crested  pride  lay  low, 
And  broke  was  Elam's  horned  bow  ; 
Damascus  heard  the  ponderous  fall 
Of  old  Benhadad's  palace  wall ; 
The  ocean  reddened  with  the  fire 
From  the  rock-built  strengths  of  Tyre. 
False  was  fierce  Philistia's  trust, 
Desert  !Moab  mourns  in  dust. 
Lo  1  in  chains  our  Captains  bring 
Haughty  Zion's  eyeless  king. 
Kcdar's  tents  are  stnick,  her  bands 
Scattered  o'er  her  burning  sands, 
And  Egypt's  Pharaoh  quails  before 
The  Assyrian  Lion's  conquering  roar.* 

But  neither  Nebuchadnezzar  nor  even  *'  great 
Babylon  *'  that  he  had  **  built  for  the  house  of  the  king- 
The  Medes :  dom  by  the  might  of  his  power,  and  for  the 
Cyaxares.  honour  of  his  majesty/'  could  stand  for  ever. 
A  day  of  reckoning  was  coming.     The  Scythians,  aided 

♦  Milman,  "  Belshazzar's  Feast." 


by  the  Medes  (Manda)  and  Babylonians,  had  stamped 
out  Assyria,  but  when  the  Babylonians  made  common 
cause  with  such  allies  they  were  playing  with  fire,  a 
proverbially  dangerous  game.  The  half-civilized  in- 
vaders from  the  Iranian  hill-country  having  once  tasted 
loot  wanted  more.  They  were  only  biding  their  time. 
Cyaxares,  the  Median  king  who  had  helped  to  plunder 
Nineveh,  was  the  first  to  bring  the  Medes  prominently 
forward  on  the  stage  of  history.  They  were  an  Iranian 
race,  and  branch  of  that  great  Aryan  family  of  world- 
conquerors,  inhabiting  the  mountainous  region  south 
of  the  Caspian  Sea,  and  were  alw^ays  closely  associated 
with  the  Persians,  who  lived  between  them  and  the 
Persian  Gulf,  and  were  at  the  beginning  of  their  career 
subject  to  them. 

Cyaxares,  after  a  reign  of  forty  years,  was  succeeded 
by  Astyages  (594)  in  the  very  year  when  Solon  was 
legislating  for  Athens,  and  seven  years  before  ^^^  ^  ^^ 
the  fall  of  Jerusalem,  and  under  his  sus- 
picious rule  events  took  a  turn  which  affected  his  own 
throne  and  the  whole  of  Western  Asia  up  to  the  edge  of 
the  Aegean. 

His  kingdom  adjoined  that  of  Lydia,  and  he  had 
married  the  daughter  of  the  Lydian  king  Alyattes,  and 
sister,  therefore,  of  Croesus.  One  night  he  Birth  of 
was  warned  in  a  dream — dreams  play  a  great  Cyrus, 
part  in  Oriental  history — that  his  daughter,  Mandane, 
who  was  married  to  a  Persian  prince,  would  have  a  son 
who  would  one  day  overthrow  him.  The  story  of 
Sargina,  of  Moses,  of  Eomulus,  once  more.  As  soon  as 
the  child  was  born,  his  superstitious  grandfather  gave 
orders  for  his  destruction,  hoping  thereby  to  avert  the 
uncomfortable  prophecy.  But  destiny  is  not  so  easily 
cheated.  Harpagus,  who  had  been  entrusted  with  the 
murder  of  the  infant,  had  an  eye  to  the  future,  and, 


220 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


instead  of  doing  as  he  was  ordered,  gave  the  chihl  over 
to  one  of  the  royal  herdsmen.  To  cut  a  long  story  short, 
this  man  and  his  wife  kept  the  chikl  and  brought  him 
up  as  their  own  among  the  shepherds. 

When  ten  years  old  he  was  playing  with  other  boys 
of  the  village,  and  was  chosen  by  them  to  play  the  part 
His  boy-  of  king.  Young  Cyrus  entered  fully  into  the 
hood.  j,Ajg  assigned  to  him.    lie  appointed  ministers 

and  gave  orders,  as  to  the  manner  born.  But  one  of 
them,  the  son  of  a  great  person,  perhaps  the  local 
squire,  Artembares,  felt  it  beneafch  his  dignity  to  obey. 
Cyrus  was  equal  to  the  occasion.  The  recalcitrant 
aristocrat  was  incontinently  flogged !  Of  course,  the 
matter  did  not  end  there.  The  ])oy  went  blubbering  to 
his  father,  who  in  turn  comi)lained  indignantly  to  the 
king.  Astyages  sent  for  C'yrus  and  the  herdsman  :  the 
boy's  face,  bearing,  speech,  and  age  aroused  his  sus- 
picions, which  were  confirmed  by  the  torture-extracted 
evidence  of  tlie  peasant  and  the  frank  confession  of  the 
courtier  Ilarpagus.  The  old  man  said  little  :  he  invited 
Harpagus  to  dinner,  and  the  wretched  man  there  ate  of 
his  own  son,  killed  and  roasted  by  the  king's  orders. 

Fortunately  for  justice,  the  old  tyrant,  besides  being 
a  brute,  was  also  a  fool.  He  made  two  bad  mistakes, 
Astyages'  one  through  vindictiveness  and  the  other 
folly.  through  superstitious  weakness.     Tbat  dish 

had  made  Harpagus  a  deadly  enemy  for  life,  and  the 
author  of  the  crime  seems  never  to  have  thought  of  it. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  priests  who  had  advised  him  to 
murder  young  Cyrus  now  told  him — was  it  stupidity  or 
had  Harpagus  bought  them  ?— that  the  evil  dream  had 
already  been  unwittingly  fulfilled,  and  that  there  was 
nothing  more  to  be  feared.  He  believed  them.  The 
trusted  friend  he  had  turned  into  an  irreconcilable 
enemy;   the  destined  enemy  he  spared,  to  become  the 


THE  UNCHANGING  EAST 


221 


cause  of  his  downfall.  Instead  of  keeping  Cyrus  near 
him  and  under  close  though  veiled  supervision,  the 
king  sent  him  away  to  his  parents,  out  of  his  sight,  in 
the  distant  uplands  of  Persia.  It  was  the  same  mistake 
which  our  own  Piichard  II.  made  with  Henry  of  Boling- 
broke.     Clearly,  the  gods  had  blinded  him. 

Cyrus  grew  up  to  vigorous  manhood,  and  with  the 
connivance  and  even  the  aid  of  Harpagus,  who  was 
tliirsting  for  vengeance,  matured  his  plans  for  ^j  j^^^^j^ 
rebellion.  When  all  was  ready,  he  summoned  a  Persian 
his  tribesmen  to  meet  him  on  a  certain  '^^° 
plateau  about  two  miles  square,  and  thickly  covered 
with  briars,  each  man  armed  with  a  pruning-hook.  On 
their  arrival  he  ordered  them  to  set  to  work  and  clear 
the  ground.  This  being  done,  he  invited  them  next  day 
to  a  generous  feast,  and  when  they  expressed  their 
appreciation  of  the  contrast  between  their  present 
occupation  and  that  of  the  day  before,  he  addressed 
them  thus:  '*  Men  of  Persia,  this  is  how  the  matter 
stands.  Follow  me,  and  you  will  have  these  and 
countless  other  good  things,  without  any  menial  labour, 
liefuse  to  listen  to  me  and  there  are  endless  toils  in 
store  for  you  like  that  you  endured  yesterday.  There- 
fore, do  what  I  tell  you,  and  be  free  men.  Providence 
has  marked  me  out  for  the  task ;  and  you  are  a  match 
for  the  Medes  anywhere,  including  a  field  of  battle. 
Well,  then,  lose  no  time  in  revolting  against  Astyages  !  " 

The  result  was  not  doubtful.  With  inexplicable  folly 
Astyages  gave  the  chief  command  to  Harpagus,  who 
went  over  to  Cyrus  on  the  field.  The  king  victory  of 
was  routed  and  captured.  The  Persians  were  ^J^^^- 
now  the  dominant  partner  in  the  firm  of  Medes  and 
Persians,  and  Cyrus  had  found  out  that  he  was  a 
born  general  and  had  imbibed  a  taste  for  conquest. 
h)uch  was  the  birth  of  the  Persian  Empire  (559  b.c). 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


It  might  have  been  expected  that  Cyrus  would  now 
fall  upon  his  next-door  neighbour,  the  King  of  Babylon, 
Lydia:  but  this  was  not  to  be.     His  next  conquest 

Oyges.  ^yjj^g  Lydia.     The   known   history  of  Lydia, 

which  occupies  the  central  portion  of  the  west  of  Asia 
Minor,  begins  with  the  usurpation  of  Gyges,  a  palace 
otHcial  who  murdered  his  royal  master,  Candaules,  and 
married  his  widow.  The  Delphic  oracle,  ah'eady  famous 
far-afield,  gave  him  its  moral  support,  and  he  repaid  it 
with  magnilicent  ornaments  of  gold  and  silver. 

I^kch  successive  king  of  Lydia  extended  its  borders 
and  its  wealth,  till  Alyattes  came  into  collision  with 
Cyaxares,  the  king  of  the  Medes,  already  mentioned, 
who  helped  Nabopolassar,  father  of  Nebuchadnezzar, 
to  destroy  Nineveh.  A  solar  eclipse  reconciled  them, 
and  a  diplomatic  marriage  made  them  allies.  The 
daughter  of  Alyattes  (and  sister  of  Croesus)  married 
Astyages,  the  grandfather  of  Cyrus. 

His  throne  passed  to  his  son  Croesus,  whose  name 
has   become   a    by-word    for  enormous  wealth.     The 

Lydian    kingdom    had    reached    its   zenith. 

Croesus,  as  was  inevitable,  annexed  all  the 
rich  Greek  cities  on  the  Asia  Minor  coast,  and  still 
further  filled  his  coffers.  The  islands  he  wisely  let 
alone.  But  his  wealth  was  his  undoing.  A  rich  man, 
in  a  fine  house  full  of  treasures,  is  apt  to  grow  nervous 
when  there  are  burglars  about.  So  Croesus  took  alarm 
at  the  rise  of  Persia  and  its  assimilation  of  his  friendly 
neighbour  Media.  He  determined  not  to  wait  to  be 
attacked,  but  to  take  the  bull  by  the  horns.  Delphi 
told  him  that,  if  he  fought,  he  would  destroy  a  mighty 
empire,  and  that  he  need  have  no  fear  for  himself  till 
a  mule  reigned  over  the  Persians.  The  infatuated 
millionaire  was  as  blind  as  those  Greek  oraclemongers 
were  cunning.     He  fought  a  drawn  battle  with  Cyrus  at 


Croesus. 


THE  UNCHANGING  EAST 


223 


Pteria,  and  with  incredible  idiocy  disbanded  all  his 
troops  for  the  winter,  appointing  them  a  rendezvous  in 
five  months'  time.  Cyrus,  with  Napoleonic  speed,  was 
upon  him,  Sardis  fell,  and  the  kingdom  of  Lydia  had 
ceased  to  exist  (54G  b.c). 

The  Greek  coast-towns  w^ere,  of  course,  swept  in  and 
swelled  the  booty.  Cyrus  had  tried  in  vain  to  make 
them  his  alUes  before,  and  now  they  came  in  The  Asiatic 
tears  to  beg  for  his  friendship.  He  laughed,  ^^eeks. 
**  A  fisherman,"  said  he,  "  once  piped  to  the  fish,  but 
they  refused  to  come  to  shore.  So  he  fetched  a  net  and 
caught  a  great  number.  When  they  leapt  about  w^ildly, 
he  said  to  them,  *  You  refused  to  dance  before,  when  I 
piped  to  you  :  cease  your  dancing  now.'  " 

His  armies  were  now  fortified  with  experience :  he 
knew  their  courage :  they  trusted  his  leadership  :  and, 
not  least,  the  sinews  of  war  were  amply  pro-  Cyrus  takes 
vided  by  the  rich  spoil  of  Lydia  and  the  B^^yio^- 
Greek  merchant-cities.  With  the  east  and  the  north  well 
in  his  grasp,  Cyrus  now  confidently  advanced  upon 
Babylon.  The  weakling  Nabonidus  was  in  the  field, 
and  his  son  Belshazzar  held  the  capital.  Cyrus  won 
a  battle  at  Opis,  Sippara  surrendered,  Nabonidus  fled. 
The  writing  was  on  the  wall.  The  proud  imperial  city 
had  been  found  wanting,  and  its  days  were  numbered. 
Within  two  days  Babylon  fell  without  a  blow.  Cyrus 
had  diverted  the  course  of  the  Euphrates,  and  his 
soldiers  marched  into  the  doomed  city  by  the  dry  river- 
bed (538  B.C.). 

Among  the   captives   Cyrus   found,   of  course,  the 
Jewish  exiles  who  had  been  brought  away  from  Jerusalem 
when   that    city   was   sacked   by  Nebuchad-  Cyrus  and 
nezzar  (587    B.C.).      Cyrus,    from    whatever  t^eJews. 
motive,  sent  them  home  and  helped  them  to  rebuild 
their   city   and   Temple.     It  may  have   been  that  he 


224 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


death,  of 
Cyrus. 


wished  to  show  in  a  visible  way  that  what  the  great  and 
terrible  Nebuchadnezzar  had  done  he  had  power  to 
undo ;  or  he  may  have  done  it  out  of  sheer  generosity 
and  pity,  and  perhaps  sympathy  for  a  race  whose 
religion  was  monotheistic  and  free  from  idols  as  his 
own  was ;  or,  and  this  is  perhaps  the  most  likely 
hypothesis,  with  far-seeing  prudence  he  may  have 
wanted  to  pave  the  way  for  an  advance  upon  Egypt  by 
planting  a  nation  at  its  doors  under  a  deep  obligation 
to  him. 

He  was  destined  never  to  carry  out  the  conquest  of 
Egypt :  that  was  left  for  his  son  Cambyses.  He  was 
Tragic  drawn  north,  ostensibly  by  the  attractions  of 

Tomyris,  the  widowed  queen  of  the  Massa- 
getae  near  the  Caspian.  She  dared  to  reject 
his  suit,  and  defiantly  challenged  him  to  fight.  "  Insati- 
able as  you  are,"  said  she,  **  I  will  give  you  blood  more 
than  you  want."  The  Persians  were  beaten.  The  head 
of  the  great  Cyrus,  the  mightiest  war-lord  of  the  East, 
was  cut  from  his  body  and  thrust  into  a  wine-skin  full 
of  human  blood,  while  the  relentless  Queen  exulting 
jeered  :  "  I  told  you  so  :  man  of  blood,  take  your  fill !  '* 
(529  B.C.). 

Croesus  was  right  when  he  reminded  Cyrus  that  the 
wheel  of  Fortune  revolved  unceasingly,  now  up,  now 
Vicissitudes  down,  with  men,  cities,  and  empires.  It  cer- 
of  Empire,  tainly  was  very  much  so  in  the  '*  Unchanging 
East  "  twenty-four  centuries  ago.  The  Persian  Empire 
survived  its  founder  just  two  centuries.  During  that 
time  it  was  the  paramount  power  from  the  Dardanelles 
and  the  Nile  to  the  Caspian  and  the  Himalayas.  But 
it'  failed  in  its  attack  on  Greece,  and  by  the  Greeks 
under  Alexander  in  due  time  it  was  destroyed.  The 
wheel  had  turned  once  more. 


CHAPTER   XIV 

THE   PERSIAN   WARS— GREECE    SAVES   EUROPE 

Herodotus  tells   us    that  the    Persians   called   Cyrus 
*' Father,"  because  he   was   ever   kindly  and  devising 
good  things  for  his  subjects ;  Cambyses,  his 
son,  they  called  -the  Slave-driver,"  because  ^^''^^'''• 
he  was  so  harsh  and  contemptuous ;  while  Darius,  who 
came  next,  they  dubbed  -the  Shopkeeper,"  because  he 
was  so  businesslike  and  made  money  cut  of  everything. 
Cambyses  was  a  thoroughly  detestable  character,  with- 
out one  redeeming  virtue  :  overbearing,  licentious,  and 
ruthless.     He  ill-treated  his   sisters,   rode  rough-shod 
over  the  religious  feelings  of  his  Egyptian  subjects,  shot 
dead  the  young  son  of  a  loyal  courtier,  caused  by  brutal 
violence  the  death  of  his  wife,  and  ordered  the  murder 
of  his   brother.     Incurably  hasty,   he  died   of  blood- 
poisoning  brought  on  by  his  own  carelessness,  and  died, 
hke  Nero,  lamented  by  none. 

During  his  absence  in  Egypt  there  had  been  an 
attempt  on  the  part  of  the  Medes  to  resume  the  leading 
part  in  the  Union,  possibly  to  some  extent  The  pseudo- 
owing  to  the  Persian  king's  excesses,  and  for  Smerdis. 
some  months  after  the  monster's  demise  a  pretender 
masquerading  as  -  Smerdis,  son  of  Cyrus,"  held  the 
reins  of  power. 

But  the  fraud  was  detected,  a  plot  was  formed  by 
seven  Persian  nobles,  "Smerdis"  was  murdered,  and 

225  Q 


22C  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

Darius,    through    luck    not    unassistod    by    cunning, 
ascended  the  throne.    He  i-roved  himself  by  many  wise 
measures   an  extremely  able  organizer   and 
""'"•         administrator  with  a  genius  for  finance.    He 
divided  the  whole  empire  into  twenty  provinces,  each 
under  its  own  governor  or  "  satrai-,'  and  in  place  of  the 
old  haphazard  system  of  "benevolences     or  so-calle 
voluntary  gifts,  established  regular  taxation  on  u  fixea 
scale.     The  empire  "  boomed,"  but  unfortunately      he 
shopkeeper"   did  not   stick  to   his  ledger.     He  must 
needs    go    a-conquering,   and  he  died  a  bitterly  dis- 
appointed man.    He  crossed  the  Dardanelles  mo  what 
is  now  Turkey,   and  came  back  wiser  possibly,   but 
certainly  sadder.     But  worse  was  still  to  come. 

The  Greek  coast  cities  of  Asia  Minor  were  governed 
by  native  rulers,  "  Tyrants,"  recognizing  the  Persian 
Aristagoras  king  as  their  suzerain  and  bolstered  up  by 
Of  Miletus,     liini  ill  return.    Among  these  was  Aristagoras, 
the  ruler   of   Miletus.     This   man   conceived  the    in- 
excusable project  of  an  unprovoked  assault  on  the  rich 
island  of  Naxos  close  by,  and  persuaded  his  neighbour, 
the  Persian  satrap  Artaphernes,  to  take  shares  m  the 
venture.     But  there  was  jealousy  and  double-dealing 
in  the  matter,  and  it  proved  a  bad  speculation.     Arta- 
phernes was  furious,  and  Aristagoras  felt  guilty  and 
apprehensive.    Like  the  thief  who  sets  fire  to  a  house 
in  order  to  escape  in  the  general  confusion,  he  resolved 
to  stir  up  a  general  revolt  in  the  Greek  coast  towns. 

They  were  lured  by  the  prospect  of  freedom,     ine 
despotic  governors  were  to  resign ;  he  himself  set  the 
.    Thelonio      example.     Most    of    the  rest   were  wise   m 
revolt.  time ;  those  who  were  not  were  murderea  or 

expelled.  The  revolt  began  with  a  revolution  (500  B.C.). 
It  was  the  end  of  the  Age  of  Tyrants  among  the  Asiatic 
Greeks  as  well  as  in  the  home  states. 


THE  PERSIAN  WARS 


227 


Then  xiristagoras  sailed  to  Greece  on  a  begging-tour 
for  ships,  or  money,  or  both.  He  first  interviewed  the 
Spartan  King  Cleomenes.     Clearly,  he  was  .  .  , 

,  ^         ,  1  ,  -,  ,  Aristagoras 

born  too   soon;    he   would  nowadays   have  and 
made  his  fortune  by  writing  prospectuses  for  ^^^^^^^^s. 
rubber  companies.     **  You  will  have   no   trouble,"   he 
said.     *'  Those  barbarians  are  all  cowards,  and  you,  sir, 
are  the  greatest  military  nation  on  the  earth.     They 
fight  with  bows  and  short  spears ;  they  go  into  battle 
wearing   loose   trousers   and   turbans.     Fighting  them 
will  be  mere  child's  play.    And  think  of  their  treasures  ! 
Gold,  silver,  copper,  embroidered  stufis,  beasts  of  burden, 
and  slaves,  all  yours  for  the  asking."    He  then  unfolded 
a  map  and  pointed  out  the  way  to  Susa,  the  Persian 
capital  (the  Shushan  of  the  Book  of  Esther).     "Here 
are  the  Lydians,"  he  said;  ''made  of  silver;  next,  the 
Phrygians,   richest   farming  in   the  world;    next,  the 
Cilicians,  bring  in  five  hundred  talents  a  year.     Here 
is   Susa,   and  the   king's  palace    and  wealth    untold. 
Whereas  here  at  home  you  fight  for  a  poor  little  bit  of 
country  against  poverty-stricken  enemies  from  whom 
there  is  nothing  to  squeeze."     The  Spartan  asked  him 
to  come  again  *'  the  day  after  to-morrow."    When  he 
came,  he  simply  asked  him  how  far  it  was  from  the 
Aegean  to  Susa.     Aristagoras  made  the  mistake  of  his 
life.     *'  Three  months'  journey,"  he  said  without  think- 
ing.    '*My  good  sir,"  was  the  prompt  reply,  *'you  will 
kindly  leave  Sparta  before  sunset."     The  Ionian  was 
checked  but  not  mated.     The  Spartans  were  poor.    His 
purse  might  succeed  where  his  tongue  had  failed.     He 
hinted  a  handsome  commission ;  ten,  twenty,  finally  fifty 
talents.     But  the  king's  little  nine-year-old  daughter 
saved  him.     *'  Father,  you  will  give  in,  if  you  don't  run 
away  !  "     Cleomenes  recovered  himself  and  Aristagoras 
could  not  obtain  another  audience. 


228 


THE  ANCIENT   WORLD 


At  Athens  be  met  with  more  success.  He  was  heard 
by  the  general  assembly  and  found  it  easier  to  impose 
Athens  helps  on  thirty  thousand  legislators  in  parliament 
the  revolt,     ^j^^^j^  qj^  q^^q  ^alm  man  in  his  study.     They 

were  dazzled  by  the  golden  prospect  and  the  glory,  and 
twenty  ships  were  sent.  Ilinc  iliac  lacrimal  The 
Ionian  rebels  took  the  Persian  authorities  off  their 
guard,  marched  on  Sardis,  the  capital  of  the  province 
and  burnt  it,  and  the  Athenian  contingent  helped  to  do 
the  mischief  (499  B.C.).  As  will  be  seen,  it  was  this 
which  brought  about  the  Persian  wars. 

The  revolt  could  have  but  one  conclusion.  The 
Asiatic  Greeks  were  commercial  and  artistic,  but  they 
The  revolt  were  never  any  good  at  fighting.  Aristagoras, 
crushed.  ^j^^  prime-mover,  lost  heart  and  withdrew  to 
Thrace,  where  he  was  killed,  and  at  Lade  the  Ionian s 
showed  what  poor  stuff  they  were  made  of  and  sealed 
their  own  fate.  Their  fleet  was  outnumbered,  but  still 
the  enemy  hesitated.  Every  day  was  critical.  Dionysius, 
a  Phocaean  captain,  grasped  the  situation,  and  promised 
them  victory  if  they  would  take  his  advice.  They  agreed, 
and  for  a  week  they  submitted  to  strenuous  drilling  and 
manoeuvres.  But  the  week  was  the  limit  of  their 
endurance.  They  went  on  strike.  *'  What  have  we 
done,"  they  grumbled,  "  that  we  should  sweat  like  galley- 
slaves  ?  Who  is  this  conceited  Phocaean  that  we  should 
obey  his  orders?"  They  left  their  ships,  went  ashore 
and  lolled  in  the  shade.  And  the  result?  Some  in 
disgust  at  such  conduct  resolved  to  desert  the  cause 
and  save  their  own  skins.  The  battle  was  a  tragic 
fiasco.  The  revolt  was  over.  The  coast  towns,  and 
this  time  the  islands  as  well,  were  all  crushed  under 
the  heavy  heel  of  Persia.  What  an  object  lesson  to 
any  rich  commercial  nation  which  may  take  a  dislike 
to   exertion,   and   trust  its   defence  to  chance !     That 


THE  PERSIAN  WARS  229 

siesta  in  the  shade  cost  the  lonians    their  independ- 

V 11 C  G . 

Nor  did  the  matter  end  there.    Darius,  in  spite  of 
his  disas  reus  march  into  Europe  on  a  former  occasion 
resolved  to  assume  the  offensive  and  carry  the 
.>-ar  into  the  enemy's  country.     He  liad  heard  S'f 
ot  tlie  Athenians'  share  in  the  revolt  and    **'""•=*'• 
shooting  an  arrow  up  into  the  sky,  prayed  for'  vengeance 
on  Athens,  and  ordered  a  footman  to  say  to  him  three 
times  at  every  meal,  "  Sire,  remember  the  Athenians  t  -' 
Two  years  after  the  battle  of  Lade,  the  first  Persian 
expedition  set  out  to  invade  Greece,  under  Mardonius, 
the  kings  son-m-law.    This  attack  came  to  nothing 
Macedonia  was  overrun,  but  as  the  fleet  was  doubling 
Mount  Athos,  it  encountered   a  terrific  storm,  which 
destroyed  over  three  hundred  ships  and  twenty  thousand 
men,  and  the  land  force  was  set  upon  in  the  night  by 
wild  tribes  and  Mardonius  himself  wounded.    Europe 
evidently  was  a  hard  nut  for  Persia  to  crack  (492  b  c  ) 
But  Darius  was  not  easily  turned  from  his  purpose 
He   made   most   elaborate   preparations,   military  and 
diplomatic,  sent  an  ultimatum  fo  the  Greek  second 
states,  and  in  490  b.c.  despatched  an  armada  invasion, 
under  Datis,  a  Mede,  and  Artaphernes.     No  roundabout 
march  this  time.    No  doubling  of  stormy  capes.     They 
must  sail  straight  across  the  Aegean  the  quickest  way, 
take  Eretna  and  Athens,  and  bring  the  knaves  in  chains 
into  h,s  presence.     The  king's  orders  were  strict.    On 
board   they  carried,  besides  the  chains,  Hippias,  the 
exi  ed  Tyrant  of  Athens,  now  a  very  old  man  with  loose 
teeth,  and  a  quantity  of  fine  white  marble  with  which  to 
erect  a  trophy  on  the  site  of  their  victory.     With  similar 
presumption  Napoleon,  in   1804,  when  meditating  bis 
inyaaion  of  England,  prepared  a  commemorative  medal 
with  the  inscription,  "  frappee  a  Loijdres  en  1804,"  while 


230 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


still  on  the  wrong  side  of  the  Channel.  The  medal  was 
never  struck,  thongh  another  was  with  the  words 
*'  Descente  en  Angleterre  "  !  In  the  Graeco-rersian  case 
the  invaders  did  at  least  get  across  the  dividing  sea 
and  effect  a  landing  without  opposition. 

They  mustered  six  hundred  sail.  Starting  from 
Cilicia,  they  followed  the  coast  as  far  as  Samos,  then 
The  Armada  turned  west,  raided  Naxos,  offered  up  costly 
starts.  sacrifices  at  Delos,  and,  landing  in  Euboea, 

took  Eretria  with  the  help  of  treachery  after  a  week's 
siege.  The  temples  were  burnt  in  revenge  for  those  of 
Sardis  burnt  by  the  Ionian  insurgents. 

Then,  after  a  few  days'  rest,  the  Persians  sailed  on 
to  Attica,  landing,  by  the  advice  of  Hippias,  at  the  plain 
Arrival  at  of  Marathon.  It  w\as  conveniently  near,  and 
Marathon,  offered  suitable  ground  for  cavalry,  in  which 
the  invaders  were  strong.  Also,  no  doubt,  Hippias 
remembered  that  that  was  the  lucky  spot  where,  fifty- 
one  years  before,  he  had  landed  with  his  father  Peisistra- 
tus,  when,  returning  from  exile  at  Eretria,  he  so  easily 
overcame  Athenian  opposition.  History  this  time  was 
not  to  repeat  itself.  The  plain  of  Marathon,  on  the 
west  coast  of  Attica,  is  about  six  miles  long  by  one  or 
two  broad,  and  is  surrounded  on  three  sides  by  high 
hills,  while  there  is  also  a  piece  of  marshy  ground  at 
the  northern  and  southern  extremities.  The  Eretrian 
prisoners  were  deposited  in  a  neighbouring  island,  the 
ships  were  moored,  and  the  army  drawn  up  in  battle 
formation. 

Though  it  might  seem  to  the  Persians  but  a  short 
^tep  to  Athens  (2G  miles),  there  was  a  slight  obstacle  in 
Sparta  the  way  in  the  shape  of  a   body  of  10,000 

holds  aloof,  jjjgjj  determined  to  dispute  every  inch  of  the 
road.  As  soon  as  the  Athenians  had  heard  of  the 
arrival  of  the  Persians,  they  had  despatched  their  full 


THE   PERSIAN  WARS  231 

force  of  9000  heavy-armed  infantry  to  meet  them,  and 
before  starting  sent  urgent  messages  to  Sparta  and 
Plataea.  The  runner  Pheidippides  covered  the  distance 
to  bparta,  150  miles  of  hilly  country,  in  two  days,  and 
appealed  for  help  before  it  was  too  late.  But  super- 
stition was  put  before  patriotism.  The  Spartan  forces 
could  not  start  before  the  full  moon.  In  a  purely 
military  state  like  Sparta,  whose  whole  existence  was 
that  of  the  camp  and  the  battlefield,  it  seems  incredible 
that  such  a  consideration  should  have  been  allowed  to 
interfere  with  military  exigency  in  a  crisis,  and  when 
the  reader  remembers  how  jealous  Greeks  were  of  one 
another  and  how  undeveloped  was  their  sense  of  national 
unity,  he  is  tempted  to  suspect  that  the  Spartan  excuse 
was  a  mere  hollow  pretext.  Before  the  end  of  the 
chapter  we  shall  see  again  how  not  even  the  presence  of 
a  common  foe  could  make  the  Greeks  sink  their  pettv 
differences.  "^ 

^  On  the  other  hand,  the  little  town  of  Plataea  gave  a 
shining  example  of  devotion  which  was  never  forgotten. 
On  receipt  of  the  message,  they  sent  every 
available  man,  lOOOhoplites  (heavy  infantry),  SL'taeans 
to  strike  for  freedom  against  the  "  Barbarians  "  J^'"'  *^^ 
They  joined  the  Athenians  after  these  had  ^^^'°^"^'* 
already  encamped   on  the  high   ground  at  Marathon 
and  this  was  absolutely  the  only  help  that  came. 

The  whole  force  numbered  10,000,  and  was  under  the 
command  of  ten  generals  and  the  Polemarch  or  War 
Minister.     These  were  all  equal  and  took  sole  ^ 
command  for  one  day  in  turns.     This  absurd  question  of 
system,  combined  with  the  fact  that  the  ten  ^<*°^"aad. 
generals  were  equally  divided  on  the  question  of  fightins 
or  waiting,  might  easily  have  led  to  disaster.     Fortu 
nately,  the  ten  included  Miltiades,  who  had  once  been 
Tyrant  of  the  Thracian  Chersonese  and  was  accustomed 


2B2 


THE   ANCIENT   WORT.T) 


to  command,  and  who  saved  the  situation.  He  pointed 
out  the  extreme  danjijer  of  delay,  and  persuaded  the 
Polemarch,  Callimachus,  to  give  his  casting-vote  for 
battle.  Tlie  five  generals  who  had  all  along  been  in 
favour  of  fighting  then  gave  up  their  turns  of  command 
to  him. 

Thus  !Miltiades,  in  the  nick  of  time,  became  practi- 
cally sole  chief  of  the  army  in  the  field  and  free  to  act. 
The  tattle  ^^^  tactfully  waited  for  the  day  which  would 
of  Mara-  jn  any  case  have  been  his  to  command,  and 
then  without  more  ado  attacked.  The  War 
Minister  led  on  the  right,  and  the  Plataeans  were 
posted  on  the  left.  These  two  wings  were  compact  and 
heavy  bodies,  several  deep,  but  in  order  to  make  his 
front  as  long  as  possible,  to  avoid  being  surrounded, 
MiUiades  had  to  make  his  centre  very  thin.  The  word 
was  given,  and  the  whole  line  attacked  at  the  double. 
The  distance  to  be  covered  was  about  a  mile,  downhill. 
The  Persians  stared  in  amazement  at  the  folly  of 
such  an  attack,  without  cavalry  or  archers,  and, 
before  they  could  recover,  their  desperate  assailants 
were  upon  them.  Their  numbers,  of  course,  told,  and 
they  were  not  instantly  swept  into  the  sea.  The  battle 
was  long  and  hotly  contested.  In  the  centre,  as  was 
to  be  expected,  the  Greek  line  was  broken.  But  the 
two  wings  bore  down  all  resistance  and,  instead  of 
pursuing  the  fugitives,  wheeled  round  and  came  to 
the  rescue  of  the  centre,  attacking  from  two  sides  at 
once  the  Persians  who  were  already  confident  of 
victory  in  that  part  of  the  field.  This  manoeuvre 
settled  the  matter.  The  Persians  broke  and  tied,  the 
Greeks  pursued  and  cut  them  down,  yelling  for  fire  to 
destroy  the  ships.  An  Homeric  battle  ensued  on  the 
beach,  the  Persians  making  a  desperate  stand  to  save 
their  means  of  escape.     Seven  ships  were  destroyed ; 


THE   PERSIAN  WARS 


233 


but,  on  the  Greek  side,  the  War  Minister  and  one  of 
the  generals  were  killed.  Cynaegeirus,  brother  of  the 
poet  Aeschylus,  had  his  hand  chopped  oiY,  as  he  was 
trying  to  prevent  the  escape  of  one  of  the  ships.  The 
invaders  lost  (5400  killed,  and  the  victors  192. 

I3ut  there  was  no  time  even  for  rest.     The  Persians 
had  hurriedly  put  to  sea  again  and  were  sailing  south  to 
round  Cape  Sunium  and  surprise  Athens  before 
its  gallant  defenders  could  return.     Treason  atTenTpTto 
was  busy  inside  the  walls,  and  immediately  surprise 

Athens 

after  the  battle  a  polished  shield  had  flashed 
a  suspicious  signal  from  the  heights  above  Marathon- 
What  could  it  be  ?  Miltiades  could  not  tell,  but  he  was 
taking  no  risks.  Without  a  moment's  delay,  the  tired 
troops  set  out  for  Athens.  When  the  Persian  fleet 
arrived  in  the  ofling,  they  saw  waiting  for  them  that 
same  devoted  band  of  heroes,  with  the  blood  and  the 
dust  and  the  glory  of  Marathon  still  fresh  upon  them. 
They  could  not  face  them  again.  Discretion  they  thought 
was  at  times  the  better  part  of  valour;  they  turned 
their  shij^s'  bows  east  and  sailed  away  foiled  (490). 

Hippias'  worst  fears  had  been  fulfilled.  While  help- 
ing to  draw  up  the  Persians  on  the  plain  of  Marathon, 
he  happened  to  sneeze  and  cough  violently,  Theinva- 
and  one  of  his  teeth,  many  of  which  were  sion  fails, 
loose,  fell  out.  Failing  to  find  it,  he  exclaimed  despon- 
dently, **We  shall  never  win  in  this  country:  what 
space  my  tooth  occupies  is  as  much  as  I  shall  ever  get 
of  it."  What  a  ditferent  spirit  was  in  the  Norman 
William,  when  he  landed  at  Hastings  and  tripped  on  the 
sand  ! 

The  mystery  of  the  flashing  shield,  that  earliest 
recorded  heliograph  message,  has  never  been  satisfac- 
torily solved.  Gossip  said  it  was  the  doing  of  the 
Alcmaeonidae,    a    powerful    family    at    Athens.     But 


234 


THE   ANCIENT  WOELD 


Herodotus  did  not  believe  it.  Had  ihc  Tersians  suc- 
ceeded, they  would  have  restored  Hippias,  and  the 
Alcmaeonidae  were  no  friends  of  Hippias.  Perhaps  the 
Thebans,  who  hated  Plataea  and  Athens,  had  something 
to  do  with  it.  What  is  certain  is  that  there  existed 
disloyalty  within  the  walls,  which  only  lacked  the 
opportunity  of  mischief,  and  that  Miltiades'  prompt 
action  in  marching  hack  saved  Athens  and  Greece. 

Twenty-three  centuries  later  the  field  of  Marathon 
could  still  stir  the  imagination  and  make  a  poet  dream  : 

Tho  mountains  look  on  "Nraratbon — 

And  Marathon  looks  on  the  sea  ; 
And  musing  there  an  hour  alone, 

I  dream'd  that  Greece  might  still  be  free  ; 
For  standing  on  the  Persians'  grave, 
I  could  not  deem  myself  a  slave  !  ♦ 

And  so  long  as  men  care  for  liberty,  they  can  never 
forget  what  Europe  owes  to  Miltiades  and  his  devoted 
ten  thousand. 

After  the  full  moon,  when  all  was  over,  two  thousand 
Spartans  arrived  at  Athens,  having  marched  from 
Sparta  in  three  days.  Though  too  late  to  be  of  any 
use,  they  wanted  to  see  what  Persians  looked  like,  and 
were  taken  to  Marathon.  They  lavished  compliments  on 
the  Athenian  patriots.  How  would  they  have  been 
feeling  by  that  time,  if  the  battle  had  gone  the  other 
way  ?     So  often  is  it  true  that  help  delayed  is  help  too 

late. 

It  would  seem  that  the  Persians  had  already  landed 
the  cargo  of  white  marble  in  readiness  for  their  trophy. 
At  any  rate,  it  did  not  go  back  with  them,  for  the  famous 
A1;henian  sculptor  Pheidias  afterwards  very  appropriately 
turned  it  into  a  statue  of  Nemesis,  or  Eetribution ! 

As  might  have  been  supposed,  Darius  was  furious 

*  Byron,  "  The  Isles  of  Greece." 


THE   PEKSIAN  WARS 


235 


at  the  defeat  of  Datis  and  Artaphernes.  Two  attempts 
on  Greece  had  now  failed.  But,  nothing 
daunted,  he  immediately  prepared  for  a  third. 
Orders  were  issued  for  men,  ships,  stores,  arms,  and 
money,  on  an  unprecedented  scale.  But  an  insurrection 
in  Egypt  diverted  his  attention,  and,  before  he  could 
suppress  it,  he  unexpectedly  died.  His  son  and 
successor  Xerxes  was  as  inferior  (to  him  as  Cambyses 
had  been  to  Cyrus.  In  both  cases  the  father  had 
raised  himself  to  a  lofty  pinnacle  by  hard  and  con- 
tinuous work  and  surpassing  merits,  while  the  son, 
"  born  in  the  purple,"  had  grown  up  in  all  the 
voluptuous  and  irresponsible  luxury  of  an  Oriental 
court.  The  result  in  each  case  was  a  spoilt  child  and 
a  character  disfigured  by  weakness,  vanity,  and  a  total 
lack  of  the  sense  of  proportion,  coupled  with  ex- 
travagance, callousness  and  an  ungovernable  passion. 
Both  men  suffered,  in  popular  language,  from  **  swollen 
head,"  and  both,  to  use  another  slang  phrase,  "made 
a  mess  of  things."  Irresponsible  caprice  ended  in 
irreparable  calamity. 

Xerxes,  after  thoroughly  crushing  the  Egyptian 
revolt,  swore  to  avenge  his  father  and  to  punish  the 
Greeks,  and  his  warlike  preparations  were  He  decides 
stupendous.  He  was  urged  on  by  the  rulers  ^^  ^*^' 
of  Thessaly  and  the  family  of  Hippias ;  but  they  were 
spurring  a  willing  horse.  As  he  himself  said  to  his 
lords,  he  wished  to  eclipse  his  ancestors  and  to  punish 
the  Athenians  for  the  burning  of  Sardis  and  the  rout 
of  Marathon;  besides,  there  was  wealth  to  be  seized 
in  Greece,  and,  finally,  he  had  dreams  of  a  universal 
empire.  Mardonius  stooped  to  basest  flattery  and  even 
falsehood.  The  Greeks  had  not  resisted  him,  how  could 
they  oppose  the  might  of  Xerxes  ?  Besides,  "  nothing 
venture,  nothing  have,"     Artabanus  tried  in   vain  to 


236 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


dissuade  him  :  **  Remember  how  the  Scythians  beat 
Darius.  The  bridge  may  be  broken  and  retreat  cut  off. 
The  mightiest  men  may  have  the  worst  luck.  Do  not 
underrate  the  Greeks.  But  if  we  must  go,  then  at  least 
let  the  king  stay  at  home  and  not  risk  his  own  life." 
It  only  made  Xerxes  angry,  and  the  war  was  decided  on. 

The  infantry  alone  is  said  to  have  numbered 
1,700,000,  and  there  were  80,000  horse,  and  camels 
The  army  ^^^  chariots.  Even  allowing  for  exaggera- 
tions, which  appear  certain,  the  total  must 
have  been  immense.  There  were  Persians,  Medes, 
Scythians,  Egyptians,  Syrians,  Arabians,  Assyrians, 
Chaldaeans,  Phoenicians,  Caspians,  Bactrians,  Indians, 
Lycians,  Mysians,  Ethiopians,  in  a  word,  men  from 
every  country  from  the  Dardanelles  to  India,  and  from 
the  Upper  Nile  to  the  Caspian  Sea.  The  Persians, 
Medes,  Indians,  Arabians,  and  a  few  others  only,  pro- 
vided the  cavalry.  The  flower  of  the  whole  army  was 
composed  of  the  *'  Immortals,"  a  picked  corps  of 
10,000  Persians,  whose  numbers  were  never  allowed 
to  vary.  The  fleet  mustered  1207  men-of-war,  which 
The  navy  ^^^^  provided  by  the  Phoenicians,  Egyptians, 
and  the  people  on  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor, 
not  excluding  the  x\siatic  Greeks  who  were  **  pressed." 
Strangest  of  all,  in  the  king's  own  immediate  cntourar/e 
was  Demaratus,  an  exiled  King  of  Sparta  ! 

Nothing  was  left  to  chance — so  at  least  Xerxes 
thought.  To  avoid  the  sudden  storms  of  Mount  Athos, 
its  peninsula  was  cut  through  by  a  canal  a  mile  and  a  half 
long,  and,  to  save  time,  two  bridges  of  boats  were  thrown 
aci*oss  the  Hellespont  (Dardanelles).  Huge  stores  of 
food  were  accumulated  at  various  points  along  the  line 
of  march. 

The  monotony  of  the  journey  was  frequently  broken. 
At   Sardis    there   was  an  eclipse  of  the   sun,   and  a 


THE  PERSIAN  WARS 


287 


Lydian  was  cut  in  two  and  the  army  made  to  march 
past  between  the  two  halves,  because  his  father,  after 
generously  entertaining  Xerxes  and  his  army,  incidents  of 
had  dared  to    ask  that  this  one  son  might  the  march, 
be  allowed   to   stay  with   him  at  home,  while  all  the 
others  followed  Xerxes  to  Europe  !     At  Abydos  there 
was  a  review,  and  Xerxes,  on  his  white  marble  throne, 
wept  like  a  child  at  the  thought  that  in  a  hundred  years 
not  a  man  of  that  proud  host  would  be  left  alive.    A 
storm   destroyed   the   boat-bridges,   and   by  the  king's 
orders  the  Hellespont  was  flogged  and  reviled:  "Salt 
and  muddy  stream,  the   king  will  cross  you,  whether 
you   like   it    or    not!"      Three   hundred    lashes    were 
administered,  and  fetters  thrown  into  the  sea.    What 
was  less   amusing  was   that  the   bridge-builders  were 
decapitated.    Life  with  an  Oriental  potentate  is  seldom 
dull!     The  bridges  were  repaired,  and  the  army  took 
seven  days  and  nights,  without  a  pause,  to  cross.     At 
Doriscus,  in  Thrace,  there  was  another  grand  review 
and  a  census   was   taken.     The  grand  total,  counting 
land  and  sea  forces,  both  from  Asia  and  from  Europe, 
and  including  servants   and  camp-followers,  was  said 
to  amount  to  5,283,220  !     Evidently,  the  moral  effect 
and  terror  in  Greece  were  tremendous.   At  various  points 
along  the  road  extraordinary  omens  occurred,  as  usual 
on  great  occasions.     Last,  but  not  least,  the  mere  aspect 
of  the  motley  elements  of  this  crusade  must  have  afforded 
ample  amusement  and  delight  to  any  one  with  an  eye 
for  the  humorous  or  the  picturesque. 

To  cut  a  long  story  short,  it  was  found  impossible  to 
defend   the  entrance    into    Thessaly,   and    the   Greek 
council   of  war   decided  to  make  their  first  j^^ck  of 
stand  at  the  Pass  of  Thermoj)ylae.     The  sea  ^nion  in 
at  this  point  used  at  that  time  to  come  within  ^"^^®- 
a  few  yards  only  of  the  rocky  base  of  Mount  Oeta,  leaving 


288 


THK   ANCIENT  WORLD 


just  room  for  a  narrow  road.  In  such  a  place  superior 
numbers  would  be  of  no  avail.  A  few  hundred  really 
determined  men  could  keep  thousands  at  bay.  Accord- 
ingly a  force  amounting  altogether  to  about  ten  thousand, 
including  300  Spartans,  was  posted  here  under  the 
Spartan  King  Leonidas.  It  is  amazing  to  us  to  find 
that  the  Greeks  were  within  an  ace  of  not  attempting 
to  hold  this  marvellously  strong  position,  and  not  from 
cowardice,  but  from  sheer  selfishness  and  lack  of  union. 
Even  in  the  face  of  a  common  danger,  their  counsels 
were  divided.  In  481,  the  year  before  Xerxes  arrived, 
a  congress  of  all  the  states  was  called  at  Corinth,  but 
some  of  the  states  actually  absented  themselves,  Argos 
from  jealousy  of  Sparta,  and  Thebes  from  envy  of 
Athens.  The  Peloponnesian  states  were  more  numerous 
and  important  than  those  of  the  north,  and  so  the  one 
idea  of  the  congress  was  to  let  the  north  go  and  defend 
the  Isthmus  of  Corinth.  That  was  pleasant  for  Athens ! 
The  Cretans  pleaded  an  oracle  as  an  excuse  for  not 
helping ;  the  Corcyreans  sent  ships,  but  purposely  sent 
them  too  late,  to  see  which  way  the  tide  was  setting ; 
Gelo,  the  otherwise  high-minded  Tyrant  of  Syracuse, 
who  commanded  immense  resources  and  could  be 
generous,  refused  to  help  because  the  Greeks  would  not 
give  him  the  chief  command  of  all  their  forces.  It  is 
a  sad  spectacle. 

However,  it  was  decided  to  hold  Thermopylae.  But 
even  then,  with  Xerxes  actually  within  striking  distance, 
Thermo-  some  states  hung  back,  pleading  festivals  and 
pyiae.  Olympic    Games  !     The  truth  was  that  the 

heart  of  the  southern  states  was  cold.  They  thought 
of  themselves  only.  Xerxes  could  not  believe  that 
Leonidas  and  his  handful  would  really  bar  his  way  ;  he 
waited  four  days  expecting  them  to  surrender.  At  last 
he  ordered  the  attack.    A  Persian  scout  had  seen  the 


THE   PERSIAN  WARS 


239 


Spartans  carefully  combing  their  hair,  and  the  exile 
Demaratus  explained  that  it  meant  they  were  resolved 
to  fight  to  the  death.  The  Spartans  were  determined 
and  cheerful.  On  being  told  that  the  enemy's  arrows 
would  fly  so  thick  as  to  hide  the  sun,  a  Spartan 
exclaimed,  "  Good  !  we  shall  fight  in  the  shade.'*  It 
was  disgraceful  that  there  were  not  more  Greeks  at 
Thermopylae,  but  those  who  were  there  had  the  right 
spirit.  It  was  good  metal  with  the  true  ring.  Thrice 
Xerxes  leapt  from  his  throne  in  an  agony  of  rage  and 
suspense.  Attack  after  attack  was  repulsed.  Even  his 
"  Immortals "  were  rolled  back  in  confusion.  The 
struggle  went  on  for  t\yo  days.  He  might  never  have 
passed  any  further,  but  for  a  piece  of  execrable  treason. 
A  native,  called  Ephialtes,  told  him  of  a  little-known 
roundabout  path,  by  which  it  was  possible  to  get  over 
the  hills  and  come  down  behind  the  Greek  position. 
**  A  most  toad-spotted. traitor  "  !  And  yet,  but  for  him,  the 
world  would  be  much  poorer.  It  would  have  lost  the  most 
pathetic  and  magnificent  of  all  the  bright  examples  of 
patriotic  devotion.  History  could  ill  spare  Leonidas 
and  his  little  band  of  heroes. 

The  position  being  turned,  the  game  was  up. 
Leonidas  gave  permission  to  any  of  the  allies  who 
wished,  except  the  Thebans,  who  were  there  The  Pass 
unwillingly  and  as  hostages  for  the  loyalty  ^°^*^®^* 
of  Thebes,  to  withdraw  before  the  final  tragedy.  All 
went  save  the  Thespians;  and,  except  the  Thebans 
who  in  their  hearts  were  traitors  to  the  cause,  and  sur- 
rendered on  the  first  opportunity,  all  who  stayed  died 
where  they  stood.  Roland  at  Roncesvalles !  But 
Leonidas  is  a  grander  figm-e.  Here  there  is  no  long- 
expiring  blast  on  the  horn  for  help.  Leonidas  dies 
grim  and  silent.  His  appeal  was  to  the  hearts  of  his 
countrymen,  and  to  the  hearts  of  generations  unborn, 


240 


rn 


THE  ANCIENT  A\OULL) 


to  the  end  of  time.  On  the  site  of  the  last  desperate 
stand  a  stone  Hon  was  afterwards  erected.  There  were 
three  inscriptions :  that  commemorating  the  three 
hundred  Spartans  ran  thus : 

•*  stranger,  go,  tell  the  Spartans  hero  wo  lie 
Who  did  their  bidding  nor  refused  to  die." 

It  was  magnificent  and  it  was  war.  Time  had  been 
gained,  and  the  Persian  host  had  been  withstood  and 
Effect  of  thus  shorn  of  half  its  terrors.  The  door  of 
the  battle.  Greece  had  been  forced  open,  but  Xerxes' 
eyes  were  opened  too.  He  had  sustained  severe  loss, 
material  and  moral. 

Meanwhile  the  Titanic  struggle  had  its  counterpart 
on  the  sea.  The  Greek  fleet,  mostly  Athenian,  had 
The  rival  been  posted  off  Artemisium  at  the  northern 
^®®^^'  end  of  Euboea.    There  was  not  much  fighting 

till  after  violent  storms  had  destroyed  600  of  the  Persian 
ships.  Then  the  Greeks  plucked  up  courage  and  a 
long  and  indecisive  battle  took  place.  But  the  news  of 
Thermopylae  arrived,  and  the  Greeks  fell  back  with  all 
possible  speed  to  the  isthmus. 

All  this  was  but  a  prelude.  There  were  no  Athenians 
at  Thermopylae  with  Leonidas  ;  they  were  all  on  ship- 
Themis-  board  with  Themistocles.  The  first  great 
^°*'^^'-  battle,    a    defeat,    had    been   on   land;    the 

second,  a  glorious  victory,  was  to  be  on  the  sea.  The 
Spartans  had  had  their  turn,  Athens  was  now  to  have 
hers.  Xerxes  sw^ept  over  the  land  like  a  whirlwind,  or 
rather  like  a  prairie-fire.  The  sky  reddened  above 
Athens.  She  had  no  defenders,  save  a  few  old  men. 
The  women  and  children  were  out  of  harm's  way,  the 
strong-armed  men  had  left  the  devoted  city  and  taken 
to  their  ships.  Athens  was  tossing  on  the  waves.  An 
oracle  had    said    that   '*the   wooden   walls   would  be 


THE   PEKSIAN  WAES  241 

invincible,"  and  Themistocles,  the  greatest  man  in 
Athens,  perhaps  in  Greece,  at  that  time,  had  persuaded 
his  countrymen  that  the  -wooden  walls"  were  their 
ships,  and  made  them  stake  their  all  on  their  fleet 

iQn^f!i^''fx/'^*  numbering  378  ships  of  the  line, 
180  of  them  Athenian,  was  stationed  off  Salamis.  There 
was  a  panic.  It  was  decided  to  fall  back  to 
the  Isthmus.  Themistocles  would  have  none  ®^^*°^'' 
of  it.  He  threatened  to  sail  right  away  with  his  180 
ships  to  Italy.  The  rest  gave  in,  and  the  fleet  remained 
where  it  was ;  and  the  decisive  victory  was  fought  in 
the  narrovv  waters  between  Salamis  and  the  Attic  coast. 
Ihemistocles  by  a  daring  trick  forced  on  the  battle  He 
sent  a  secret  message  to  Xerxes,  pretending  to  be  his 
friend,  and  telling  him  that   the   Greeks  were   pani  ' 

to  cut  off  their  retreat.     Xerxes  did   so,  by  detaching 
a  squadron   to  the  rear  of   Salamis.     The  news   was 
brought  to  Themistocles  while  the  council  of  war  was 
sittmg.      Eetreat   was   impossible.      That   settled    the 
debate.    And  so  the  battle  was   fought.    The   Greeks 
ost    forty   ships,   the   Persians    two   hundred,   and   a 
brother  of  Xerxes  was  killed.    -  'Twas  a  famous  victory  " 
Prose  IS  inadequate  to  describe  it.    Fortunately,  a  poet 
was  present,  fighting  like  the  rest,  the  Athenian  Aeschy- 
lus   and  he  has  given   us   a  picture  of  the  stirring 
conflict.  ° 

*  But  when  white-steeded  day,  bright  to  behold 
Held  the  wide  earth,  from  the  Hellenes  first,  ' 
Like  joyous  chant,  rang  out  their  battle-cry,' 
And  forthwith  Echo,  from  the  island  rocks,' 
Sent  back  responsive  an  inspiring  shout. 
On  aU  the  Persians,  cheated  of  their  hopes, 
Fell  terror,  for  by  no  means  as  in  flight 
Their  solemn  paean  did  the  Hellenes  sing, 


♦  Aeschylus'  "  Persae,"  transl.  by  Anna  Swanwick. 


R 


242  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

But  with  stout  courage  speeding  to  the  fray. 

The  trumpet's  hlare  fired  all  their  ranks,  and  straight, 

With  simultaneous  dip  of  sounding  oar. 

They  at  the  signal  smote  the  surging  brine, 

And  instant  all  conspicuous  were  to  sight. 

First,  the  right  wing,  well  marshalled,  took  the  lead  : 

Then  their  whole  naval  force  in  fair  array 

Bore  down  against  us.    All  at  once  was  heard 

A  mighty  shout :  Sons  of  Hellenes,  on, 

Your°country  free,  your  children  free,  your  wives, 

The  temples  of  your  fathers'  deities, 

Your  tombs  ancestral ;  for  your  all  ye  fight. 

And  from  our  side  clamour  of  Persian  speech 

In  answer  rose ;  no  time  was  there  for  pause, 

But  instant  galley  against  galley  dashed 

Her  armature  of  brass.     A  ship  of  Hellas 

Led  the  encounter,  and  from  Punic  barque 

Sheared  her  high  crest.     Thereon  as  fortune  led, 

Ship  drove  on  ship;  at  first  the  Persian  host, 

A  mighty  flood,  made  head  ;  but  soon  their  ships 

Thronged  in  the  strait,  of  mutual  aid  bereft, 

Each  against  other  dashed  with  brazen  beak. 

Crushing  the  oar-banks  of  their  proper  fleet ; 

While  the  Hellenes'  ships,  not  without  skill, 

Circling  around  them  smote ;  dead  hulks  of  ships 

Floated  keel-upwards,  and,  with  wrecks  o'erstrewn 

And  slaughtered  men,  lost  was  the  sea  from  sight. 

Ay,  shores  and  reefs  were  crowded  with  the  dead. 

In  flight  disordered  every  ship  was  rowed, 

Poor  remnant  of  the  Persian  armament. 

Then  as  men  strike  at  tunnies,  or  a  haul 

Of  captured  fishes,  the  Hellenes,  armed 

With  splint  of  oar,  or  fragment  from  the  wreck, 

Battered  and  clave  with  dislocating  blows. 

Xerxes,  quite  confident  of  victory,  had  placed  troops 
on  the  small  island  of  Psyttaleia  to  deal  with  ship- 
wrecked Greeks.  The  destruction  of  his  own  fleet  left 
them  completely  at  the  enemy's  mercy  and  they  were 
all  massacred. 

But  Xerxes  groaned,  seeing  the  depth  of  ills  ; 
For  on  a  lofty  height,  hard  by  the  sea. 
His  seat  he  held,  o'erlooking  all  the  host. 


THE   PERSIAN  WARS 


243 


His  garments  rending,  a  shrill  cry  he  raised, 
And  sped  in  flight  disordered. 

The  Persian  fleet  was  shattered  and  with  it  Xerxes' 
hopes.  The  Greeks  were  masters  of  the  sea.  From 
that  moment  victory  was  theirs.  It  was  only 
a  question  of  time.  Xerxes  felt  it  and  ^^J^rgia^^' 
could  not  face  it.  He  ran  away  to  hide  his 
head  under  the  bedclothes  at  Susa,  and  left  Mardonius 
to  ''  face  the  music  "  and  bear  the  humiHation  of  the 
final  catastrophe.     Ignoble  end ! 

A  king  sat  on  the  rocky  brow 

Which  looks  o'er  sea-born  Salamis  ; 
And  ships  by  thousands,  lay  below, 

And  men  in  nations ;— all  were  his  I 
He  counted  them  at  break  of  day,— 
And  when  the  sun  set,  where  were  they  ?  ♦ 

The  main  work  was  done,  but  it  still  remained  to 
apply  the  finishing  touch.    Mardouius  was  still  in  Greece 
with   800,000   men.    Athens,   or    what    was 
left  of  it,  was  once  more  occupied  and  sacked.  ^^^**^*- 
At  last,  for  very  shame,  the  Spartan  King,  Pausanias, 
led  a  united  Greek  force  out  of  Corinth  northwards! 
Mardonius  retired  into  Boeotia,  and  the  final  land  battle 
was  fought  near  Plataea  (479).     The  Persian  camp  was 
in  the  plain  by  the  river  Asopus.     Pausanias  posted 
himself  on  the  northern  slope  of  Cithaeron,  for  fear  of 
the  enemy's  cavalry.     The  Spartans  were  on  the  right, 
the  Athenians  on  the  left,  the  rest  of  the  allies  in  "the 
centre.     Emboldened  by  a  shght  success  in  a  skirmish, 
the  Greek  army  moved  down  into  the  plain  where  there 
was  a  spring,  nearer  the  Persian   camp,  still  in  the 
same    formation.     The    Persians,    without    risking   a 
regular  battle,  made  things  very  unpleasant  for  them, 
and  the  order  was  given  to  fall  back  a  little  during  the 
night.     The  alHes  in  the  centre,  either  from  stupidity 

*  Byron,  "  The  Isles  of  Greece." 


244 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


or  from  cowardice,  retired  too  quickly  and  too  far,  right 
under  the  walls  of  Plataea.  The  Spartans  could  not 
move  because  one  pig-headed  officer  refused  to  **  retreat " 
before  the  enemy,  and  the  Athenians  were  watching 
and  waiting  for  the  Spartans.  The  result  was  an 
appearance  of  confusion  and  panic.  The  Greeks  had 
done  unintentionally  what  the  Normans  purposely  did 
at  Senlac.  The  Persians  thought  they  were  running 
away  and  poured  out  of  their  camp  in  pursuit.  But  the 
Spartans  stood  their  ground  like  a  rock  and  then  charged, 
and  the  Persians  tied.  The  Athenians  for  their  part 
beat  the  Thebans  who  attacked  them,  and  the  allies  of 
the  central  corps  came  up  when  they  realized  the 
situation.  Together  they  attacked  and  stormed  the 
camp,  and  the  rest  was  a  massacre.  Those  Persians 
who  were  not  killed  took  to  their  heels  and  were  never 
seen  again.  The  Persian  invasion  was  over  and  gone. 
Thebes  suffered  well-deserved  punishment  for  its  dis- 
loyalty and  was  deprived  of  the  headship  of  Bocotia. 
Plataea,  in  memory  of  the  great  deliverance,  was 
declared  inviolable,  all  the  states  swearing  to  protect 

its  liberty. 

The  victorious  Greek  fleet  had  meanwhile  pursued 
the  remnant  of  the  Persian  across  the  Aegean,  and 
caught  it  and  annihilated  it  at  Mycale,  near 
Miletus.  It  was  said  that  this  triumph  was 
won  on  the  same  day  as  the  great  victory  of  Plataea 
(479). 

Thirteen  years  later  (466)  when  Athens  had  taken 
over' the  command  of  the  Greek  fleets  and  was  founding 

,     her  short-lived  naval  empire,  Cimon,  son  of 
The  sec[Tiel.  , 

Miltiades,    the    victor  of   Marathon,    won    a 

double  victory  over  a  Persian  array  and  fleet  at  the 
mouth  of  the  river  Eurymedon.  That  was  the  death- 
blow to  Persian  hopes  of  a  conquest  of  Greece.    Xerxes 


Mycale. 


THE  PERSIAN  WARS 


245 


had  lived  long  enough  to  see  his  grandiose  plans  dashed 
to  the  ground.  The  following  year  (465)  he  was  mur- 
dered in  his  bed.  The  seed  he  had  sown  bore  fruit  a 
century  and  a  half  later,  and  his  innocent  successor, 
Darius,  **  great  and  good,"  paid  the  penalty  of  his  vain- 
glorious ambition. 

When  Xerxes  invaded  Greece  from  the  East,  a  huge 
Carthaginian  army  was  overrunning  Sicily  in  the  West. 
The   Phoenicians   supplied  Xerxes  with  the 
bulk  of  his  fleet,  and  it  is  quite  possible  that  g-n^an^       ' 
he  had  communicated  with  Carthage,  which  beaten  at 
was    a    Phoenician    colony,    and    that    the  ^^^'"*' 
simultaneous  attack  on  Sicily  was  not  the  result  of  mere 
chance.     Gelo,  Tyrant  of  Syracuse  (Tyrants,  as  we  have 
seen,  lingered  on  in  the  West),  was  said  to  have  refused 
to  help  the  eastern  Greeks  against  Xerxes  out  of  pique. 
But  if  accepted  dates  are  correct,  he  had  a  far  more 
sensible  excuse :  he  could  not  be  spared,  nor  his  army, 
from  Sicily.     The  danger  to  the  Greeks  was  pressing 
here  too.     With  Thero  of  Agrigentum,  he  engaged  and 
routed    300,000    Carthaginians     under    Hamilcar    at 
Himera.     Tradition  said  that  the  battle  was  fought  on 
the  very  same  day  as  the  battle  of  Salamis  (480). 

It  is  interesting  to  remember  that  when  the  young 
republic  of  Rome  was  in  sore  straits  through  a  severe 
famine,  it  was  this  same  Gelo  who,  when  contempo- 
Tyrant  of  Gela,  relieved  them  by  despatching  ^*^y  events, 
corn-ships  to  the  Tiber  (491).  His  brother  and  succes- 
sor, Hiero,  also  made  things  easier  for  Rome  in  another 
way  by  defeating  the  Etruscan  fleet  (474)  and  thus 
weakening  the  power  of  that  disagreeable  neighbour 
Veii  and  its  friends.  The  Athenian  and  Roman 
republics  had  been  born  the  same  year  (510)  and  were 
growing  up  to  manhood  side  by  side. 


CHAPTEPw  XV 

THE    PELOPONNESIAN    WAR 

The  Persians  bad  come— and  gone.     Vaulting  ambition 
bad  o'erleapt  itself,  witb  tbe  usual  result.     Unlike  tbe 
level-beaded  Dane,  tbe  Oriental  potentate  did 
wars!n^        not  kiiow  bis  limitations.     Canute  merely 
Greece.         laugbed  at  bis  courtiers  wben  tbe  sea  wetted 
bis  toes,  but  knew  bow  to  keep  order  and  restore  peace 
and  rule  a  nortbern  empire  (1016-1035  a.d.).    Xerxes 
tbe  braggart,  began  at  tbe  wrong  end.     He  flogged  and 
reviled  tbe  sea,  but  wben  be  came  to  tackle  live  men, 
wbo  stood  up  to  bim,  be  ran  away  like  a  wbipped  cur 
witb  bis  tail  between  bis  legs.     Greece  bad  saved  ber- 
self  and,  tbougb  sbe  did  not  know  it  at  tbe  time,  bad 
saved  Europe.    From  East  and  West  at  once  Asia  bad 
attempted  to  overwbelm  it,  and  at  Salamis  and  Himera 
botb  attempts  bad  utterly  failed.      In  tbe  West,   it  is 
true,  tbe  attack  was  renewed.     Before  tbe  century  was 
out  Vboenician   Cartbage  was   once   more   stirrmg   in 
Sicily,  and  tbere  was  never  lasting  peace  tbere  till  tbe 
new  cbampion  of  western  civibzation,   Rome,   finally 
wiped  Cartbage  off  tbe  map  (146).     But  tbat  belongs  to 
later  bistory.      For  tbe  moment  tbe  danger  was  over. 
Tbe  bundred  and  fifty  years  tbat  followed  were  taken 
up  in  Greece  witb  a  struggle  between  tbe   states  for 
tbe  begemony,  till  a  strong  invader  laid  bis  beavy  band 
on  all  aUke  and  crusbed  tbe  discordant  elements  into 
one.     It  was  Uke  tbe    conflicts   in   England    between 

216 


THE   PELOPONNESIAN   WAR 


247 


Nortbumbria,  Mercia,  Wessex,  and  tbe  Danes,  ending 
in  tbe  Norman  Conquest.  So  in  Greece,  Atbens,  Sparta, 
and  Tbebes,  eacb  bad  tbeir  turn  of  success  and  failure, 
till  all  tbeir  differences  were  crusbed  under  tbe  beel  of 
Pbilip  of  Macedon  and  bis  son  Alexander. 

Atbens  came  first.    Her  fleet  bad  saved  Greece,  but 
witb  wonderful  modesty  and  self-control  sbe  bad  yielded 
tbe  cbief  place  to  Sparta,  even  on  tbe  sea.  Athenian 
But  Sparta,  led  by  Pausanias,  proved   un-  naval 
wortby,  and  tbe  command  of  tbe  fleets  was  ^®&eniony. 
transferred  to  Atbens  (476) — a  most  momentous  step, 
as  will  appear  very  soon. 

It  is  sad  to  reflect  on  tbe  later  careers  of  tbe  beroes 
of  tbe  Persian  Wars.     Miltiades,  tbe  victor  of  Maratbon, 
made  tbrougb  bope  of  private  gain  an  inex- 
cusable  attack  on  tbe  island  of  Paros,  failed  Pausanias, 
dismally,  came  bome  mortally  wounded,  was  *^^  ^^®' 
tried  and  convicted,  and  ended  bis  life  almost 
immediately  under  tbe  shadow  of  disgrace  and  a  crusbing 
fine.     Pausanias,  tbe  Spartan  king  and  bero  of  Plataea, 
was   caugbt  intriguing  with   Persia,   the   arch-enemy, 
condemned  by  bis  own  Government,  and   perished   of 
starvation  and   exposure.     Themistocles,   the  inspired 
saviour  of  Greece  at   Salamis,  who  both  created  tbe 
Athenian  fleet  and  compelled  it  to  win,  ended  bis  days 
as  a  pensioner  of  tbe  Great  King  in  a  Persian  province, 
having  fled  thither  of  all  places  for  refuge  from  tbe 
heartless  calumnies  and  intrigues  of  bis  fellow-country- 
men. 

The  accusations  against  Themistocles  were  unfounded. 
Pausanias,  however,  was  certainly  guilty,  and  Sparta 
had  failed  as  a  leader  and  protector.    Athens,  ^j^^  ^^^^ 
taking  over  the  command  of  the  fleets,  formed  federacy 
the  confederacy  of  Delos,  for  mutual  protec-  ®^^«i°s- 
tion  of  the  Greek  coasts  and  islands,  with  Delos  as  a 


248 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


centre.  But  it  was  the  old  story  of  the  lonians  and 
Dionysius  again.  Tiie  confederates  were  lazy.  They 
hated  personal  service.  One  by  one,  they  commuted 
their  contribution  of  ships  and  men  into  a  money-pay- 
ment. They  were  rich,  and  it  was,  they  thought,  so 
much  less  trouble,  and  after  all  came  to  the  same 
thing.  But  it  did  nothing  of  the  kind.  Athens,  receiv- 
ing the  money  and  supplying  all  the  ships  and  all  the 
men,  her  own  ships  and  her  own  men,  largely  at  their 
expense,  became  the  dominant  partner  in  the  concern. 
There  was  no  longer  any  equality  possible.  She  sur- 
rounded herself  and  joined  herself  to  the  sea  with 
impregnable  walls  and  lodged  the  Treasury  within  them 
"for  greater  safety."  It  was  a  beginning  of  Empire. 
The  Confederates  took  alarm.  First  one  and  then 
another  refused  payment  of  their  subscription.  Athens 
used  force  to  extract  it.  Then  the  Athenian  Empire  was 
an  accomplished  fact. 

It  was  purely  a  naval  empire.  An  attempt  was 
indeed  made  at  extension  of  land  frontiers,  and  succeeded 

Athenian  ^^^'  ^  ^^^^'*  *^^^  ^^  ^  limited  scale.  But  all 
naval  hopes    in    that    direction    were    crushed   at 

empire.  Coroneia   (447),   and   Athens   thenceforward 

confined  herself  to  her  proper  element,  the  sea. 

But  her  empire  was  short-lived.  The  old  Greek 
jealousy  was  at  work.  Unfriendly  eyes  were  watching 
Cause  of  the  ^^^  ^^^  excuse  was  soon  found  for  an  attack. 
Peiopon-  Hence  the  famous  Peloi)onnesian  War,  be- 
nesian  war.  ^^yg^j^  Athens  and  her  allies  and  Sparta  and 
hers,  which  after  twenty-six  years  ended  in  the  down- 
fall of  Athens. 

It  is  obviously  quite  impossible  in  the  course  of  one 
chapter  to  give  a  full  and  complete  account  of  a  war 
bristling  with  thrilling  incidents.  We  have  still  a  long 
way  to  travel  on  our  journey.  Let  us  for  convenience'  sake 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  249 

divide  the  war  into  three  periods  and  select  only  the 
most  striking  episodes  of  each,  scarcely  if  at  all  indicating 
the  connexion  between  them. 


From  the  Outbreak  of  Hostilities  to  the  Peace  of 

NiciAS  (431-421). 

Corinth  had  a  colony,  the  island  of  Corcyra,  and 
Corcyra   in   turn   had    a    colony,    Epidamnus.      Like 
all  Greek  cities,  Epidamnus  had  its  revolu-  ^ 
tions,  and   in   one  of  these  the   aristocrats  CorcTra!  and 
being   exiled   harassed    the   new   democracy.  ^Pidamnus. 
It    appealed   to   Corcyra   for    help,    was    met   with    a 
refusal  and   appealed  to   Corinth,  who    was  delighted 
to  give  Corcyra  a  slap  in  the  face,   being  jealous   of 
her  own  rather  too  prosperous  colony.      They  fought, 
and   at  first    Corinth   was  worsted.      Then  she  made 
tremendous    preparations,    and    Corcyra    in    a    panic 
shouted  *'Help!"     Athens  came  to  the  rescue,  saved 
Corcyra's   beaten  fleet  from   complete   extinction   and 
looked  like  doing  even  more.     Corinth  retired  muttering 
threats,  stirred  up  revolt  in  one  of  Athens'  subject  cities, 
Potidaea,    and,    when    Athens    promptly   took    strong 
measures  to  reduce  the  rebel,  raised  a  hue  and  cry  up  and 
down  Greece,  and  vituperated  Athens  as  an  intolerable 
bully.    A  general  congress  met  at  Corinth,  long  speeches 
were  made,  and  the  outcome  was  war  against  Athens 
under  the  leadership  of  Sparta. 

Sparta  had  on  her  side  all  the  mainland  states  but 
four ;  Athens  had  two  mainland  states  and  Corcyra  and 
most  of  the  Aegean  Sea  islands.     Sparta  was  The  com- 
entirely  a  military,  Athens  almost  entirely  a  l>atants. 
naval  power.    So  long  as  she  kept  command  of  the  sea, 


I 


250 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Pericles. 


she  was  inviacible.  Pericles,  who  was  at  the  head 
of  affairs,  knew  this.  This  remarkable  man, 
as  incorruptible  as  he  was  eloquent,  was 
especially  distinguished  for  his  commonsense  and 
"  level-headedness."  He  said  to  the  Athenians  :  **  You 
are  magnificent  on  the  water,  but,  frankly,  you  are  no 
good  on  land.  Let  the  cobbler  stick  to  his  last.  Do  not 
attempt  a  land  empire,  and  above  all  beware  of  distant 
enterprises!"  What  he  preached  he  practised,  and,  so 
long  as  he  was  there,  all  went  well.  But,  alas,  in  the 
second  year  of  the  war  Athens  was  visited  by  a  deadly 
plague  from  the  east,  which  swept  off  about  a  fifth  of  the 
population,  including  Pericles.  The  loss  was  irreparable. 
No  one  ever  took  his  place. 

The  Thebans,  old  and  spiteful  enemies,  thought  it  a 
very  clever  thing,  the  moment  war  was  declared,  to  make 
Thebans  ^  surprise  attack  on  Plataea.  They  got  in 
surprise  at  night,  by  the  help  of  treachery,  of  course. 
Plataea.  j^^^  ^^^  Plataeans,  when  day  came,  realized 
how  few  the  euemy  were  and  recovered  their  senses.  By 
breaking  through  walls  between  house  and  house,  they 
moved  troops  undetected  in  such  a  way  as  completely  to 
surround  the  market-place  where  the  Thebans  had  piled 
arms.  They  then  delivered  a  furious  assault  from  all 
sides  at  once,  women  and  slaves  joining  in,  hurling 
missiles  from  windows  and  roofs.  The  rout  was  complete. 
Some  of  the  Thebans  ran  into  a  building  adjoining  the 
town-wall,  mistaking  its  door  for  a  town-gate,  and  there 
they  were  caught  like  rats  in  a  trap  and  surrendered. 
Eeinforcements  arrived  from  Thebes,  too  late,  and  retired 
on  the  promise  that  the  prisoners  should  be  spared.  No 
sooner  were  they  out  of  sight  than  the  Plataeans  savagely 
killed  their  captives  in  cold  blood.  Athens  sent  an 
urgent  warning,  but  it  arrived  too  late.  This  atrocious 
and  stupid  deed  set  an  example  only  too  readily  followed 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR 


251 


The  war  was  deplorable  for  nothing  more  than  for 
shameless  breaches  of  faith  and  unsportsmanlike  be- 
haviour on  both  sides. 

Plataea  was  the  first  to  suffer  from  the  fashion  she 
had  set.     The  whole  Spartan  army  besieged  the  little 
town  (420)  held  by  480  men  and  110  women-  siege  of 
cooks.  After  preliminary  arguments  savouring  Plataea. 
of  those  between  the  wolf  and  the  lamb  in  th°e  fable,  the 
Spartans,  always  bad  at  sieges,  started  work.      They 
tried  to  rush  the  place,  but  failed.     A  gigantic  mound 
was   raised   against  the  town-wall,  but  the  Plataeans 
rapidly  increased  the  height  of  their  wall  to  keep  pace 
with  it.     They  also,  with  great  ingenuity,  undermined 
the  mound  and  removed  the  materials  by  a  tunnel  as 
quickly  as  they  were  piled  on  the  top,  and  also  built  an 
inner  town-wall  in  the  form  of  a  crescent,  with  its  horns 
resting  against  the  outer  wall  on  either  side  of  the  point  of 
attack,  in  case  the  outer  wall  should  be  taken.    Battering- 
rams  they  turned  aside  or  broke  off.    And  an  attempt 
to  fire  the  town  was  frustrated  by  a  rainstorm.     Then  the 
Spartans  quietly  sat  down  and  surrounded  the  town  with 
a  double  line  of  brick  walls.    The  space  between  the  walls 
was  roofed  over,  and  there  were  high  towers  at  intervals, 
which,  however,  were  open  at  the  bottom  so  as  to  allow 
of  free  circulation  for  the  besiegers  round  the  whole 
circuit  under  cover.     The  walls  and  towers  were  battle- 
mented  for  defence  and  patrolled.      The  position  was 
critical.     On  a  dark  and  stormy  night  220  men  stole 
silently  out,  armed  and  carrying  ladders.     A  tile  fell  and 
gave  the  alarm,  and  there  was  a  thrilling  struggle ;  but 
all  except  one  got  away  safely. 

The  remainder   surrendered  on  promise  of  a  fair 
trial.     The  Spartans  were  judges  and  execu-  Fail  of 
tioners  combined.    The  prisoners  were  by  way  Plataea. 
of  trial  asked  one  question,  whether  they  had  helped 


252 


TV 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


the  Spartans  in  the  war,  to  which,  of  course,  they  coukl 
only  answer  ''No,"  and  were  there  and  then  led  out 
and  executed  in  cokl  blood.  The  town  which  had  wit- 
nessed the  final  defeat  of  the  Persian,  and  had  been 
declared  inviolable  for  ever,  was  levelled  with  the  dust, 
and  by  Greeks  (427). 

And  now  a  more  pleasing  picture,  more  attractive 
to  Nelson's  countrymen.  At  the  narrow  entrance  to 
Phormio :       *^^^  ^^^^  ^^  Corinth,  where  the  two  shores  come 

ex"oit  ^^^^  ^^^^^  *^  ^^^^^  ^*^^^**  *^^  Athenians  held 

^^  °^  •         Naupactus  with  a  land  force  and  a  squadron 

of  twenty  ships  under  Phormio.     It  was  a  Gibraltar 
on  a  small  scale.     Forty-seven  Peloponnesian  men-of- 
war,   with   store-ships,   were  sailing  across   to  attack 
Acarnania.     Phormio   marked  them  and  advanced  to 
intercept  them.     To  prevent  the  Athenians  from  execu- 
ting  their  favourite  manoeuvre  of  going  through  the 
spaces   in   the  enemy's  line  and  wheeling   round   and 
ramming  them  astern,  the  Peloponnesian  ships  huddled 
close   together,   like    frightened   chickens   under    their 
mother  s  wings,  store-ships  in  the  centre  and   men-of- 
war  forming  a  close  ring  round  them  with  their  bows 
pointing  outwards.     Phormio  had  the  true  commander's 
instinct ;  he  knew  the  conditions  thoroughly,  and  took 
Nature  into  partnership.     He  knew  that  a  fresh  breeze 
would  spring  up  at  a  certain  hour.      Accordingly  he 
made   his   twenty  ships  form   single  line  a-head  and 
move  steadily  round  and  round  and  round  the  enemy, 
almost  shaving  their  bows,  and  looking  as  if  they  might 
be  going  to  ram  them.     The  enemy  backed  out  of  his 
way  till  they  were  tightly  wedged  in  a  compact  circular 
mass.      Then     the    expected     breeze    came,    the    sea 
roughened,    and    the    Peloponnesian    ships    began    to 
tumble  and  bump  against  one  another.     Phormio  gave 
the  word.     Suddenly  all  the  Athenian  ships,  executing 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  253 

a  half-turn,  charged  into  the  disordered  mass,  sinkin- 
many  ships  and  capturing  twelve,  crews  and  all. 

The  rest  turned  tail.    But  the  Peloponnesians  made 
them  up  again  to  sevonty-scvcn  this  time,  with  a  Spartan 
m  command,  and  sent  them  out  once  more,  second 
riiormio  had  only  his   same  twenty  ships    eJ^pio't. 
The  fleets  watched  each  other  across  the  strait  for  a 
week.     Then  the    Peloponnesians   moved  along  their 
shore  eastwards,  in  a  column  four  ahreast,  as  if  intend- 
ing to   swoop   upon   Naupactus.     Phormio  could  not 
clioose  hut  follow  and  keep  pace  with  them  along  the 
opposite    shore.     All    of   a    sudden    the   van    of  the 
leloponnesian  column,  half-turned  to  port,  intending 
to  cut  off  the  Athenians  and  drive  them  ashore  with  their 
overwhelming  numbers.      They  succeeded  in  trapping 
nine.     The  hrst  eleven  were  too  quick  for  them  and  "ot 
away.    While  some  of  the  Peloponnesians  were  busy 
making  sure  of  their  nine  prizes,  twenty  of  their  best 
Bhips  were  told  off  to  pursue   the   eleven  Athenians 
which  ran  hard  for  Naupactus.    And  now  an  extra- 
ordmary   thing    happened.     The  captain   of  the  last 
Athenian  ship,  seeing  a  big  merchant  vessel  anchored 
m  the  ofling,  by  a  sudden  inspiration  turned  at  ri"ht 
angles  from  his  course,  performed  a  semi-circle  round 
the  merchantman,  and,  unexpectedly  re-appearing  from 
behind  It,  rammed   his   foremost  pursuer's   broadside 
before  it  could  pull  up  or  change  its  course,  so  rapid 
was  the  whole  manoeuvre.     The  other  ten  Athenians 
thereupon    plucked    up  their   courage  and    returned 
attacked  their  pursuers  in  detail  and  overpowered  them' 
and  even  rescued  the  nine  ships  lost  at  the  beginning 
of  the  engagement  (430  and  429). 

Phormio's  victories  make  the  pleasantest  episode  in 
the  whole  of  the  war,  full  of  sea-breeze  and  seamanship 
and  straight  and  square  fighting.    Many  other  incidents 


254 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


are  unpleasant  and  even  revolting.     In  429  Mytilene 
Character      fell  to  Athens  after  a  siege,  and  the  Athenians 
of  the  war.     ^^j.^  ^yitijin  ^u  ace  of  carrying  out  a  general 
massacre.     The  order  was  actually  given  and  the  black 
deed  only  narrowly  averted  by  an  eleventh-hour  repent- 
ance   (429).     At   Olpae    both   the   Athenian   and    the 
Spartan  commanders  were  guilty  of  very  shabby  under- 
hand dealing.     At  Sphacteria  the  Athenians  broke  their 
word  on  a  trumpery  pretext.    Finall}-,   at   Corcyra  a 
revolution  was  carried  out   with   every  refinement  of 
cunning  and  cruelty.     Wars,  so  often  lauded  even  in 
the  pulpit,  do  not  exhibit  human  nature  at  its  best,  and 
the  Peloponnesian  War  was  no  better  than  any  other. 
The  best  qualities  of  the  Greeks  were  of  the  artistic 
order  :  war  only  gave  free  play  to  their  faults  such  as 
fickleness,  cunning,  jealousy,  suspicion  and  cruelty. 

At  Sphacteria   and   Pylos   the   Athenians  scored  a 
great  success.      They  occupied   and  fortified   Pylos,   a 
small  rocky  peninsula  at  the  northern  end  of 
the  Bay   of  Navarino,  as  it    is   now  called. 
Sphacteria  is  the  long  island  lying  across  the  mouth  of 
the  bay  and  almost    blocking   it.      The    Spartans,  by 
land  and  sea,  attacked  the  little  fort  and  landed  420 
hoplites,  mostly  Spartans  of  good  family,  on  the  island 
—on  an  island,  when  they  were  not  masters  of  the  sea. 
It  was  the  mistake  of  Xerxes  at  Psyttaleia  once  more. 
That  blunder  ruined  them.     An  Athenian  fleet  arrived, 
defeated  theirs,  and  was  in  a  position  to  dictate  terms. 
A  truce  was  made  :  the  defeated  Spartan  fleet  was  to 
be  handed  over  as  a  hostage  till  orders  came  from  home. 
Sparta    could  not   accept  the  Athenian  Government's 
terms,  and  the  fighting  was  resumed ;  but  the  Athenians, 
pleading   an   attack    on   their   fort   during   the   truce, 
refused  to  give  back  the  ships  !     The  men  in  the  island 
were  doomed.     For  some  time  they  lield  out,  thanks  to 


Sphacteria. 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR 


2^^^^ 


&5 


the  daring  of  blockade-runners.  But  at  last  the 
Athenians,  after  much  hanging  back,  landed,  drove  the 
Spartans  into  a  corner,  and  had  them  so  completely  at 
their  mercy  that  they  surrendered  (425). 

Sparta  had  sustained  a  severe  blow  to  her  reputa- 
tion, and  Athens  was  in  a  commanding  position.  But 
the  very  next  year  (424)  the  advantage  was  neutralized 
by  a  severe  defeat  at  Delium  and  the  loss  of  the  city 
Amphipolis.  The  battle  of  Amphipolis  was  most  useful 
by  causing  the  deaths  of  the  leaders  of  the  war-parties 
on  both  sides.*  Also  honours  were  now  about  even, 
and  both  sides  were  heartily  sick  of  fighting.  So  a 
peace  was  concluded,  called  the  Peace  of  Nicias  (421). 
Act  the  First  was  complete.  There  had  been  great  loss 
of  blood  and  money,  and  at  the  end  of  it  all  both  sides 
were  exactly  where  they  were  before  war  was  declared. 


II 

From  the  Peace  of   Nicias  to  the   Sicilian  Disaster 

(421-413). 

Peace  was  soon  broken.  Neither  side  could  trust  the 
other  or  itself  be  trusted,  and,  unfortunately  for  itself, 
and  for  Greece,  Athens  was  now  being  far  Destruction 
too  much  managed  by  the  gay,  happy-go-  o^Meios. 
lucky  and  conscienceless  Alcibiades.  The  Argive  league 
and  the  fiasco  of  the  battle  of  Mantinea  (418)  brought 
him  and  her  no  credit  or  advantage.  But  Athens  was 
still  infatuated,  and,  in  416,  probably  at  his  instigation, 
committed  another  of  those  crimes  which  blacken  the 
annals  of  this  war.  An  overwhelming  force  was  sent 
against  the  little  island  of  Melos  (now  Milo,  where  the 

♦  Cleon  of  Athens,  and  Brasidas  of  Sparta. 


256 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


famous  Venus  of  Milo  was  found)  a  Dorian  colony  from 
Sparta;  the  island,  of  course,  was  captured,  and  all  the 
men  massacred,  and  all  the  women  and  children  sold 
into  slavery.  It  was  a  case  of  sheer  undisguised 
bullying,  and  tlie  whole  of  Greece  was  filled  with  horror. 
Athens  never  committed  a  worse  mistake.  She  was 
everywhere  regarded  as  a  tyrant  and  pest  to  be  stamped 
out.  Her  next  colossal  blunder,  this  time  not  a  crime 
but  a  case  of  gross  folly  and  mismanagement,  provided 
the  opportunity. 

Pericles  had  always  warned  his  countrymen  against 
distant  enterprises.  But  the  far-seeing  statesman  was 
Sicilian  dead :  his  mouth  was  stopped  with  dust. 
Expedition.  Atlicns  idolized  Alcibiades,  and  was  following 
that  shallow  adventurer  to  ruin.  The  cause  of  the 
famous  Sicilian  Expedition  (415-418),  which  soon  be- 
came the  Sicilian  Disaster,  was  the  not  unusual  one, 
a  quarrel  between  neighbour-states.  The  people  of 
Egesta,  in  western  Sicily,  having  a  quarrel  with  their 
neighbour  Selinus,  whose  cause  Syracuse  took  up, 
persuaded  Athens  that  Syracuse,  which  was  Dorian, 
looked  very  much  like  subduing  all  Sicily,  and  that 
such  an  event  would  be  all  in  favour  of  Sparta  and 
against  Athens.  A  powerful  expedition,  one  hundred 
and  thirty-four  triremes,  besides  store-ships,  and  five 
thousand  hoplites,  under  Alcibiades,  Nicias  and 
Lamachus,  sailed  from  Peiraeus  amid  general  excite- 
ment and  rejoicing.  Quite  briefly,  Alcibiades  was  a 
clever  but  conceited  and  unsteady  adventurer;  Nicias 
was  a  thorough  gentleman,  of  high  principles  and  fair 
abihty,  but  lacking  in  decision  and  initiative ;  Lamachus 
was  a  sound  but  unpretentious  soldier. 

On  arrival  in  Italy  they  found  that  they  had  been 
taken  in  and  that  there  was  no  support  in  men  or  money 
to  expect   in   Sicily.      Alcibiades    who  loved   intrigue. 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN   WAU  257 

proposed  that  they  should  win  Sicily  by  diplomacv  and 
bus  overwhelm  Syracuse ;  Nicias  was  for  mere^mL^g 
a   demonstration  and  returning  home;  La- 
machus  had  the  only  sound   plan,  to  make  ^^ '''' 
an  immediate  swoop  upon  Syracuse  before  it  command, 
was   aware  of  their  proximity.     Such  a  move   would 
probably  have  succeeded.     Jiut,  being  opposed  by  both 
his  colleagues,  Lamachus  voted  with  Alcibiades,  sooner 
than  go  home  without  doing  anything  at  all.     So  the 
expedition  remained.     Alcibiades  was  suddenly  recalled 
0  answer  a  charge  of  sacrilege  at  home,  and  Lamachus 
bemg  soon  after  killed  in  one  of  the  earliest  engte- 

cTmmand""'  '''"  '"'^"'  ''  '^'  *"^'  ^^^^  ''''  '^^^^'^ 

r.ncl^T'"'" ^f'".^  ^^^  '^'^'^'^  ""  ^  ^'^^^  promontory 
and  the  small  island  of  Ortygia  adjoining.     On  the  east 

of  the  island  is  a  small  harbour  and  on  the  sie.e  of 

^vest  a  very  large  one,  approximately  a  circle  Syracuse. 

JZr/r  i?  ^^''"^f*''  '''^^   ^  ^""''^y  ^^^'^'^^  ^^trance 
ormed  by  the  southern  extremity  of  Ortygia  and  Cape 

1  lemmyrium  opposite.     The  siege  operations  were  mis- 

nianaged  from  start  to  finish.     The  first  mistake  the 

Athenians  made  was  that  after  sailing  up  and  recon- 

noitringand  thoroughly  alarming  their  intended  victims 

hey  quietly  sailed  away  and  went  into  winter  quarters  a 

Catana  several  miles  to  the  north.     When  they  returned 

0  business  in  the  spring,  the  Syracusans  had  built  a 

strong  wall  right  across  the  neck  of  the  promontory 

W  sea  to  sea,  making  it  very  difficult  either  to  rush 

or  to  blockade  the  town.     The  Athenians,  however  se 

vi^etr  T: :!  ^t^^-^^^^-^  -  -  to  sta:::' ti 

In  til  fi    .  ^      *  u ''  ^^'^  ^^^^^  *^^^^  ^^^'ther  mistakes. 

thev  '  ?1     ^    ?;  *^'^^^  possessing  a  magnificent  fleet, 

bey  made  no  attempt  to  wipe  out  the  enemy's,  but  le 

It  alone  in  the  smaller  harbour,  where  it  lay  sheltered 

s 


i  i 


' 


258 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


and  grew,  with  fatal  results  later  on.  Secondly,  through 
some  unaccountable  negligence  or  dilatoriness  they  never 
completed  their  enclosing  walls ;  on  the  north,  they 
collected  the  materials  for  a  wall,  but  did  not  use  them. 
There  was  a  wide  gap,  and  the  materials  already  to 
hand  were  eventually  used  by  the  besieged  to  turn  the 
tables  on  their  besiegers  ! 

Meanwhile  the  traitor  Alcibiades  had  not  been  idle. 
A  trial  in  democratic  Athens  not  being  to  his  fancy, 

Arrival  of  ^^^  ^^^^*  ^^^^  *^  Sparta,  and  gave  them  two 
GyUppus :  picces  of  advice  which'  proved  eventually  the 
tume^d!^^'  ruin  of  his  country.  One  was  to  fortify  and 
permanently  occupy  a  good  position  in  Attica, 
and  the  other  to  send  the  best  officer  they  could  spare 
to  Syracuse.  Gylippus  was  sent,  landed  at  a  distance, 
raised  troops  on  the  way,  and  one  night  marched  right 
into  Syracuse  with  three  thousand  men,  through  the 
wide  gap  in  the  Athenian  wall,  unopposed.  The  position 
was  transformed  at  a  stroke.  Gylippus  lost  no  time. 
He  fought  the  Athenians,  rolled  them  back  from  the 
end  of  their  wall,  and  with  the  materials  which  they 
had  collected  and  so  carelessly  left  lying  idle,  ran  up 
a  wall  with  amazing  rapidity  from  the  town- wall  at 
right-angles  to  the  Athenian  wall,  right  across  the 
unfinished  end  of  it  and  effectually  preventing  its  com- 
pletion. He  then  extended  it  in  such  a  way  as  to  make 
it  quite  impossible  for  the  Athenians  to  get  round  it, 
and,  indeed,  confined  them  between  these  new  walls, 
their  own  walls  and  the  sea.  The  tables  were  com- 
pletely turned :  the  besiegers  were  themselves  the 
besieged.  Nicias  fell  back  and  made  his  headquarters 
on  Cape  Plemmyrium,  south  of  the  great  harbour. 

The  Athenians  had  been  worsted  on  land,  and  now, 
to  make  matters  worse,  there  followed  a  series  of  four 
sea-fights  which  ended  in  the  destruction  of  their  fleet. 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  259 

shin!'l^?V^'  Syracusans  were  beaten  and  lost  twelve 

captured    llemmynum    and   all    its    stores.  ^     , 
hlT"  71  ^ow  cornered  at  the  head  of  the  fXm 
t>ay,  and  both  sides  of  the  harbour  entrance  '^'^^'^our. 
were  in  the  enemy's  hands.     In  the  second  battle    the 

The  position  .as  desperatrS't  7^^  S^J^ 

henes,  the  hero  of  Pylos  and  Sphacteria  arrived  with 

einforcements,  a  fine   fleet  of  seventy-three  Irirem  s 

and    five    thousand    hoplites,    besides    other    troTs 

Atheman  hopes  revived.    Demosthenes,   ever  a  X 

of  action    made  two  attacks  on   Gylippus'  wall     But 

he  second,  though  within  an  ace  of  success   ended  L 

retreat     but  T'    r '"^  T  '^°''^^''^  ^'^^  ^"'  -'^-t 
retreat     but  an  eclipse  of  the   moon  frightened   thp 

suj.rst.jous  Nicias.  who  hesitated.     That^eCspd 

rum.     The   hyracusan  fleet   attacked  once  more    and 

once  more  won,  and  Gylippus  blocked  up  the  ha  hour 

mouth  wzt^i  a  barrier  of  ships.    In  that  death-trap  the 

fourth  and  last  desperate   struggle  took  place.     The 

Athenians  used  every  available  ship  and  outnumbered 

the  enemy;   but  there  was  no  room  to  man^uvre 

Seamanship  had  no  opportunity.     The  ships  grappled" 

It    was    really  a  land    battle    fought  on    the  water 

rhucydides  has  a  thrilling  description  of  this  Titanic 

contest.    The  rival  fleets  resembled  two  mighty  wrestS 

locked  m  a  deadly  embrace,  straining  every  musc5   and 

nerve    now  one  now  the  other  gaining  the  advantage, 

but  neither  ever  able  to  throw  his  antagonist.     The 

crowds  lining  the  town  walls  and  the  shore  swayed  to 

and  fro  with  excitement,  shouting  and  groaning  by 

turns,  applauding  or  wringing  their  hands,  cheering 

and  cursing,  their  eyes  riveted  on  the  tragedy  on  which 


260 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


bung  the  honour,  and,  though  they  knew  it  not,  the 
very  existence  of  imperial  Athens. 

The  Athenians  lost.  Their  supreme  effort  had  failed. 
The  rest  was  a  complete  debacle.  They  abandoned  their 
i'inai  wrecked  fleet  and  tried  to  creep  away  over- 

defeat  of  land.  The  roads  were  blocked.  They  were 
t  enians.  i^e^^jg^  qQ  ii^[q  ^yg^y  ^nd  that  way.  Demos- 
thenes' division  of  six  thousand  men  was  caught  first, 
being  driven  into  a  walled  field  from  which  there  was 
no  escape,  and  surrendered.  Nicias  held  out  a  little 
longer,  but  six  days  after  the  retreat  began  the  last 
Athenian  had  been  captured.  Nicias  and  Demosthenes 
were  put  to  death,  while  the  remnant  of  the  Athenians, 
seven  thousand  men  or  so,  perished  miserably  of 
exposure  and  starvation  in  the  stone- quarries  of 
Syracuse. 

Athens  never  completely  recovered  from  this 
stupendous  blow.  Sicily  had  been  to  her  what  Russia 
in  1812  was  to  Napoleon.  Her  loss  was  irreparable. 
And  so  the  curtain  fell  on  Act  the  Second. 


Ill 

From  tiir  Sicilian  Disaster  to  the  Fall  op 
Athens  (413-105  d.c). 

To  understand  properly  the  course  taken  by  the 
Peloponnesian  War,  especially  in  its  later  stages,  it  is 
Sea-power  essential  to  bear  in  mind  constantly  that 
vital  to  Athens  had  extremely  little  territory  in  Greece, 
but  was  a  naval  powder,  with  distant  and 
scattered  possessions,  and  dependent  largely  on  foreign 
supplies  for  the  support  of  her  population,  which  was 
incomparably  more  sea-faring  than  agricultural.  Hence 
wc  find  that   the    fate  of  Athens   was   finally  settled 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  261 

away  in  the  east,  on  the  grain-supply  route,  in  the 
Dardane  les  The  fleet  was  surprised  and  defeated, 
and  the  food  supply  ceased,  and  Athens,  in  spite  of  her 
impregnable  walls,  had  no  alternative  but  surrender 
though  not  a  blow  was  struck  within  sight  of  the 
Acropolis.  One  more  of  history's  lessons,  which  he  who 
runs  may  read. 

But  thou-h  after  Syracuse  the  end  was  sure,  it  did 
not  come  at  once.     The  city  which  had  saved  Greece 
from  Persia,  was  not  beaten  yet.     She  still  The  Four 
nacl  pride,  ingenuity,  devotion,  and  consider-  Hundred, 
able  wealth.    As  usually  happens,  failure  abroad  brought 
trouble  at  home.     It  was  all  the  Government's  fault-it 
always  is-and  the  Government  should  be  made  to  pay. 
And  so  a   nice   little  plot  was   hatched  to  upset   the 
Democracy  and  put  an  Oligarchy,  a  government  by  a 
select   circle  of  Four   Hundred,  in   its  place.     At  the 
bottom  of  It  all  was  Alcibiades,  who  all  through  had 
been  his  native  city's  evil  genius.    He  wanted  to  come 
home  agam  and  be  idolized  once  more,  and  thought  this 
a  convenient  means  to  that  end.     The  resolution  was 
carried  out,  accompanied  by  a  moderate  reign  of  terror- 
child  s  play  compared  with  the  Corcyraean  pattern-and 
the  Four  Hundred  -  ruled  the  roost " ;  but  only  for  four 
months.     Alcibiades  was  not  recalled  :  the  people  grew 
suspicious,  and  when  Athens  was  left  defenceless,  and 
a  1  eloponnesian  fleet  seemed  on  the  point  of  attacking 
It,  and  Luboea  revolted,  they  lost  all  patience  with  the 
^  our  Hundred  and  sent  them  packing. 

The   restored    Democracy   showed  signs   of  extra- 
ordinary vitality.     The  scene  of  war  was  shifted  by  the 
Spartan  fleet  to  the  Bosphorus  and  Darda-  Athens 
nelles,  the  Athenian  corn-route.     Byzantium  revives, 
and    Chalcedon,    absolutely   commanding    that    route 
revolted  from  Athens.    It  was  a  matter  of  hfe  and  death! 


s> 


I 


262 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE   PELOPONNESIAN   WAR 


263 


Alcibiades,  the  arch-intriguer,  held  out  hopes  of  Persian 
help  for  Athens  and  was  recalled  and  pardoned,  and  for 
a  time  justified  the  confidence  placed  in  him.  The 
Athenians  in  411  and  410  B.C.,  carried  off  a  series 
of  victories  at  Cynossema,  Abydus  and  Cyzicus,  and 
strengthened  their  grip  on  that  region  (Bosphorus  and 
Dardanelles). 

It  seemed  as  if  the  mistress  of  the  sea  was  not  to  be 
deposed  after  all.  But  there  now  entered  into  the  situa- 
Poiicyof  tion  two  new  factors,  the  Spartan  admiral 
Lysander.  Lysander  and  Persian  gold.  Their  combined 
weight  turned  the  scale.  Lysander,  a  self-made  man, 
was  equally  able  as  a  fighter  and  as  a  diplomatist.  He 
quickly  grasped  the  situation.  Sparta  must  wrest  from 
Athens  the  command  of  the  sea.  Therefore  she  must 
have  a  large  and  efficient  navy.  One  great  essential 
towards  such  an  end  was  plenty  of  money.  Now  the 
new  Satrap  of  Lydia  was  Cyrus,  the  Persian  king's 
younger  son,  who  was  very  young  and  very  vain  and 
very  ambitious,  burning  to  distinguish  himself  so  as  to 
acquire  popularity  with  a  view  to  making  a  bid  for  the 
throne.  It  was  clear  the  two  men  were  made  for  each 
other.  The  Spartan  fleet  should  be  built  and  manned 
and  trained  with  Persian  gold.  It  is  a  dismal  spectacle : 
Sparta,  wearing  the  laurels  of  Thermopylae  and  Plataea, 
making  common  cause  with  the  arch-enemy  Persia 
against  her  sister-state  Athens,  the  saviour  of  Greece  on 
the  plain  of  Marathon  and  the  blue  waves  of  Salamis. 

•  Cyrus  gave  Lysander  the  key  of  his  money-chest : 
the  charm  worked  wonders.  In  a  3'ear  the  Athenian 
Persian  fleet  suffered  a  defeat  at  Notium  (407),  and, 
&^i*-  though  Lysander's  command  had  now  expired, 

in  the  following  year  another  at  Mytilene  (400).  By 
incredible  efforts  Athens  raised  a  fresh  fleet,  even  slaves 
and  knights  going  on  board.    The  total  of  Athenian  ships 


was  raised  to  a  hundred  and  fifty,  and  the  Spartans  were 
soundly  beaten  at  the  Arginusae  islands,  losing  seventy 
ships.  It  was  a  notable  triumph  (406).  But  it  was  too 
late.  Athenian  fleets  had  been  beaten  and  could  be 
beaten  again.  There  was  no  money  difficulty  for  Sparta  • 
gold  came  pouring  out  of  Cyrus's  coffers.  So  a  fresh 
fleet  was  built  and  crews  attracted  by  high  pay,  and 
Lysander  was  sent  out  again  to  see  the  matter  through. 
With  the  largest  fleet  he  could  get  together,  he  finally 
sailed  for  the  Dardanelles,  and,  to  bring  matters  to  a 
head,  took  the  town  of  Lampsacus. 

The  Athenians   could  not   choose   but  follow  him. 
With  their  hundred  and  eighty-two  ships  they  took  up  a 
position  opposite,  at  Aegospotami,  watching  Aegos- 
him  across  the  strait.     For  four  days  the  two  potami. 
fleets  stared  at  each  other  like  a  pair  of  cats  waiting  for 
a  spring.     On  the  fifth,  the  Athenian  cat  blinked  and  the 
Spartan  sprang  and  had  him  at  his  mercy.    Lysander, 
who  possibly— who  knows?— may  have  used    Persian 
gold,  which  cost  him  nothing,  to  bribe  the  Athenian 
commanders,  waited  till  the  Athenians  had  left  their 
ships  for  a  comfortable  meal  and  siesta  on  shore,  and 
unexpectedly  pounced  upon  them.    It  could  not  be  called 
a  battle.     Conon  escaped  with  twelve  ships.    All  the 
rest  were  captured,  together  with  four  thousand  men, 
who  were  all  put  to  death  (405).     The  game  was  over 
and  Lysander  and  Persian  gold  had  won.    Athens,  a  sea- 
power,  dependent  on  sea-borne  food,  was  without  a  fleet. 
Lysander  leisurely  sailed  into  the  Peiraeus  with  his 
fleet  and  quietly  waited  for  the  next  move,  while  the 
Spartan  king  Agis  blockaded  the  city  by  land.     There 
was  no  need  to  waste  energy  in  an  attack.     After  futile 
parleying,  which  only  accentuated  the  pangs  of  hunger, 
the  city  of  course  surrendered.     The  proud  walls  and 
the  harbours  were  dismantled;  all  men-of-war  but  a 


i 


a 


264 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


paltry  dozen  were  given  up ;  the  once  imperial  city 
became  the  humble  and  obedient  servant  of  her  hated 
sister  Sparta.     The  cup  must  have  been  bitter. 

The  Athenian  Empire  was  wrecked,  and  the  tragedy 
seemed  complete  enough.  But  there  was  an  epilogue  to 
The  Spartan  follow.  The  Greek  states  had  exulted  over 
supremacy,  prostrate  Athens.  Her  crumbling  walls 
sounded  to  their  ears  like  the  triumphal  music  of 
Liberty.  But  they  soon  found  that  her  fall  meant 
merely  a  change  of  masters,  and  a  change  for  the 
worse.  Athens  had  built  an  empire  and  had  insisted 
on  being  mistress  in  her  own  house.  But  with  all  her 
faults  of  performance  she  had  at  any  rate  a  lofty  ideal ; 
she  had  notions  of  political  freedom  and  progress. 
Sparta's  motto  was  ''Divide  et  impcra."  She  did  not 
try  to  build  up  a  united  nation  :  she  broke  it  up.  Her 
ideal  was  Sparta,  a  great  military  power,  on  a  high 
pedestal,  ruling  autocratically  over  innumerable  separate 
cities,  each  exploited  locally  by  a  close  council  of  ten 
nobles  backed  by  a  Spartan  governor  and  garrison. 
The  Spartan  supremacy,  which  lasted  little  more  than 
thirty  years,  was  characterized  by  selfishness  and  folly. 

Sparta  had  espoused  the  cause  of  the  pretender 
Cyrus  (402)  and,  on  his  fall,  was  naturally  the  object  of 
jjjg  the  Persian  King's  resentment.     The  Spartans 

Corinthian     wanted  war  against  Persia,  for  the  sake  of  a 
*^*  cheap  parade  of  patriotism,  and  mismanaged 

it.  Persia,  by  lavish  bribe:?  distributed  through  the 
agency  of  the  Rhodian  Timocrates,  stirred  up  trouble 
for  Sparta  at  home.  Thebes,  Athens,  Argos,  and  others 
rose  under  the  leadership  of  Corinth,  and,  thanks  to  the 
exploits  of  the  Athenian  light-infantry  leader  Iphicrates, 
Sparta  emerged  from  the  Corinthian  War  with  very 
little  credit.  She  then  concluded  a  shameful  peace  with 
Persia,  criminally  abandoning  the  Greeks  in  Asia  to  the 


THE  PELOPONNESIAN  WAR  265 

tender  mercies  of  their  old  Oriental  oppressors,  and 
hectored  the  states  at  home  into  agreeing  to  these  terms 
{oo7). 

But  Sparta  had  reckoned  without  Thebes,  who  was 
now   raising  her  head  as  the  capital  of  a  Boeotian 
confederacy.    The  Spartans  would  not  recocr- 
mze  any  such  league  :   it  was  contrary  To  J^,2fc^ 
tneir    principle    of    separate    cities    all    at  ^P*™- 
sises  and  sevens.    By  an  unscrupulous  stroke  '""'*"• 
they  seized  the  Theban  citadel,  the   Cadmeia,  killed 
or  expelled   the   democratic   leaders,   and   established 
an  Oligarchy  supported  by  a  Spartan  garrison— their 
regular    practice   (383).      But    four    years    later    the 
exiles  turned  the  tables  on  them :   they  murdered  the 
Oligarchs,   recovered  the    citadel    and  declared   their 
independence  (379).    Four  times  in  three  years  Boeotia 
was  invaded  by  the  Spartans,  but  Thebes  was  gaining 
confidence,   and    in    371    Epaminondas,    her    greatest 
general  and  one  of  the  greatest  in  all  Greek  history, 
when  the  Spartans  invaded  for  the  fifth  time,  routed 
them  hopelessly  at  Leuctra  (371).     The  Thebans  then 
carried  the  war  into  the  enemy's  country  and  four  times 
invaded  the  Peloponnese,  showing  an  easy  mastery  over 
the  Spartans.    But  on  the  fourth  occasion,  though  they 
won  the  battle  of  Mantinea  (362),  it  cost  them  the  life  of 
Epaminondas.    His  death  was  the  end  of  the  Theban 
suj)remacy. 

Thebes  had  given  proof  of  better  principles  than 
bparta.     In  her  short-lived  tenure  of  power,  she  had 
exerted  a  unifying  and  not  a  disintegrating  _ 
influence.    But  the  Greek  character  was  not  Sfbiy 
to  be  changed.    The  Greek  instinct  was  all  for  *'«""'«*• 
independence  and  all  against  federation.    The   Greek 
states  had   no   notion  of  cohesion.      The   Greek  was 
patriotic  for  his  own  city,  but  did   not  look  beyond. 


1' 


I 


266 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Athens,  Sparta,  Thebes,  all  failed  to  teach  him  the  idea 
of  a  nation. 

There  was  nobody  left  to  attempt  the  thankless  task. 
Danger  was  brewing  in  the  north ;  but,  what  with  the 
The  Mace-  Social  War  and  the  Sacred  War,  the  Greek 
donianpeni.  gfjat^s  ^vvere  ever  at  each  other's  throats  and 
wasting  their  own  and  each  other's  energies.  When 
the  northern  invader  began  to  stir,  and  Olynthus,  that 
advanced  outpost  of  Greece,  cried  for  help,  nobody 
responded.  Thirty-two  cities  of  the  Olynthian  league 
were  wiped  out,  and  Philip  of  Macedon  could  walk 
straight  into  a  disunited  and  defenceless  Greece. 


CHAPTER    XVI 


A   GOLDEN    AGE 

Thou  art  a  monument  without  a  tomb, 
And  art  alive  still,  while  thy  book  doth  live, 
And  we  have  wits  to  read  and  praise  to  give. 

—-Ben  Jonson. 

Whatever  may  be  thought  of  the  aptitude  of  the  Greeks 
for  war  or  politics,  and  it  is  not  above  criticism,  their 
sense  of  beauty  and  their  power  of  express-  ^ 
ing  it   are  beyond  question.    In  the  realm  n!ss!Ilhl' 
of  art,  with  chisel,  brush,  or  pen,  they  were  **"®^8- 
supreme,  and  their  masterpieces  remain  to  this  day  un- 
surpassed, perhaps  even  unequalled.     It  must  be  remem- 
bered that  what  to-day  thus  compels  our  admiration 
and  homage  is  a  mere  shadow  or  fragment  of  its  former 
self.     We  are  like  the  dogs  eating  the  crumbs  under 
their  master's  table :  what  the  feast  was  that  was  spread 
before  the  master's  children  we  can  only  imagine.     The 
temples  we  gaze  at  are  mere  wrecks,  battered,  broken, 
and  disfigured  by  time,  the  weather,  neglect,  and  even 
deliberate  violence ;  the  statues  which  arrest  and  stir 
us  are,  with  one  or  two  exceptions,  only  copies ;  and 
the  plays  which  move  our  tears  or  laughter  have  'come 
to  us  robbed  of  the  magic  of  music  in  spoken  word  or 
instrumental   accompaniment   and    stripped   of  colour 
and  picturesque  setting,  and   at  the  best  were   often 
winners  only  of  second  or  third  prizes.     Could  we  be 
transported  on  Prince  Housain's  carpet  and  see  those 

2G7 


2(18 


TV 


VUK   ANCTI'.NT   AVOllLD 


tcnip](\s  eoinpleto  and  brilliant  under  a  cloudloss  sky, 
tho  originals  of  those  statues  as  tliey  loft  the  sculptor's 
hands,  and  watch  and  hear  those  plays  which  wrested 
tlie  palm  from  those  wo  know,  the  Queen  of  Sheba's 
wonder  were  nothing  to  ours  :  we  should  confess  that 
not  a  tenth  part  had  been  told  us.  Pericles  boasted  that 
Athens  was  the  only  city  in  the  world  which  was  greater 
than  its  reputation,  and  Thucydides  says  that  "  if  tho 
Athenian  empire  were  to  vanish,  a  visitor  to  Athens 
would  naturally  infi^r  from  the  appearance  of  its  ruins 
that  its  power  had  been  twice  as  great  as  it  really  was." 
The  (ireek  ''  Tyrant"  included  among  his  redeeming 
(puilities  that  of  taking  a  patriotic  pride  in  tho  city 
^^  under  his  rule,  and  a  most  laudable  desire 

*•  Tyrant"  to  beautify  it.  Ifis  critics  hinted  that  his 
as  a  patron    i^otivo  was  mere  self-glorification,  a  desire  to 

01  art.  "  ' 

cut  a  good  figure  in  the  society  of  his  fellow 
Tyrants,  or,  worse  still,  a  cunning  device  to  keep  his 
subjects'  minds  and  hands  occupied  and  leave  them  no 
leisure  for  political  theorizing  or  discontent  which 
might  question  his  authority  or  endanger  his  security. 
l^c  that  a^  it  may,  the  Tyrants  were  good  patrons  of 
the  AFuses.  Under  them  architecture,  sculpture  and 
literature  received  their  earliest  encouragement. 

To  select  but  one  instance  out  of  many,  Toisistratus, 
besides  laying  tho  whole  world  under  an  everlasting 
Peisistra-  obligation  by  producing  the  first  authorized 
^^^'  text  of  the  Homeric  poems,  adorned  Athens 

with,  several  noble  buildings.  He  erected  the  first  temple 
of  the  virgin-goddess,  Pallas  Athene,  on  the  Acropolis, 
and  at  the  foot  of  the  rock  began  a  temple  of  Olympian 
Zeus  on  so  magnificent  a  scale  that  it  w^as  not  com- 
pleted till  seven  centuries  later  by  the  Roman  emperor 
Hadrian  ! 

But  it  was  not  till  the  fifth  century  r,.{\  that  Athenian 


A  (U)L])EN  A(iH  »2(;i) 

architecture  attained  the  full  glory  of  its  prime.     That 
superhuman  age,  the  like  of  which  was  never 
seen  before  or  since  in  any  country,  yielded  fif'tl^''"'"' 
an    ania:3nig  crop  of  masterpieces  in  every  ^^^ntury. 
branch  of  art.     The  national  genius  was  in  full  bearing, 
and  Athens  had  its  full  share  of  the  fruit.     Under  the 
auspices  of   Pericles  the  Magnificent  she  became  the 
most  beautiful  city   in  the  world.     His  enemies  were 
jealous  and  growled.     -  Greece,"  said  they,  -  feels  that 
she  IS  nisulted  and  the  victim  of  downright  t3Tanny 
when  she  sees  the  tribute  forcibly  extracted  from  her 
for  the  purposes  of  war  diverted  to  gilding  and  bedizen- 
ing the  city  like  a  vain  woman,  with  a  display  of  costly 
stones   and   statues   and   temples   costing    millions   to 
erect !  "    The  great  man  retorted  that  so  long  as  Athens 
discharged  her  military  and  naval  obligations  properly 
slie  had  a  right  to  devote  any  surplus  wealth  to  the 
cause   of    art   and   beauty.     His    public   works   meant 
employment  and  wages,  and  diffused  prosperity ;  and 
16  was  determined  to  make  his  Athens  the  pattern  and 
'*tlio  school  of  Hellas." 

It  is  inconceivable  that  anyone,  not  an  utter  bar- 
barian, should  be  unmoved  by  the  sight  of  the  Parthe- 
non. ^  At  the  beginning  of  our  era,  when  it  The 
was  ii\o  centuries  old,  it  still,  according  to  ^^arthenon. 
Plutarch,  possessed  the  bloom  and  charm  of  everlast- 
ing youth  like  a  magic  spell  making  it  proof  against 
the    assaults   of  time.     Now,  it   is    but    a    mutilated 
skeleton,  from  which  the  living  fiesh  has  shrunk  and 
withered.     The  roof,  half  of  the  sanctuary  walls  with 
their  frieze,  and  half  of  the  surrounding  columns  with 
the  metopes  above  them,  lie  shattered  on  the  ground  by 
an    explosion   of  gunpowder,  and  weeds  grow  in   the 
joints  of  the  stone  floor  where  once  the  gold  and  ivory 
statue  of  Athene  stood.     The  eastern  pediment  is  no 


270 


THE   ANCIENT  WOULD 


more,  aiul  the  western  lias  been  ruthlessly  stripped  of 
its  glorious  sculptures.  And  yet  that  divine  ruin  with 
its  sightless  eyes  not  merely  moves  our  pity,  it  tills  us 
with  awe. 

The  Parthenon  was  erected  between  447  and  4[]4  B.C., 
at  the  time  when  Nehemiah  was  rebuilding  the  walls  of 
Jerusalem  and  the  Decemvirs  had  just  finished  writing 
out  the  Twelve  Tables  of  the  Law  in  Home.  It  was  built 
of  white  PenteHc  marble  throughout.  The  idea  was 
supplied  by  Pericles,  the  funds  by  the  imperial  coffers  ; 
the  architects  were  Callicrates  and  Ictinus ;  and  the 
sculptor  was  Pheidias,  who  also  exercised  a  general 
supervision  and  control.  Judged  by  our  modern 
standards,  the  building  was  small,  228  ft.  long,  101 
broad  and  50  high,  but  what  miracles  of  beauty, 
symmetry  and  harmony  were  packed  into  that  small 
compass  !  There  were  sixty- two  large  and  thirty- six 
small  columns,  averaging  about  34  ft.  high  and  about 
20  ft.  in  circumference  at  the  base,  fifty  large  statues  in 
the  pediments,  ninety-two  metopes,  and  a  sculptured 
frieze  524  ft.  in  length.  The  background  of  the  pedi- 
ments and  metopes  was  coloured  red,  to  set  off  the 
sculptures,  and  some  other  parts  of  the  building  were 
coloured  blue.  The  practice  of  external  colouring  in 
architecture,  especially  w^hen  the  material  is  white 
marble,  may  seem  strange  to  us,  but  we  must  remember 
that  the  climate  of  Athens  is  not  that  of  London.  The 
possibly  hard  effect  of  a  rectilinear  style  of  architecture, 
devoid  of  arches  either  round  or  pointed,  was  mitigated 
in  an  extraordinarily  clever  manner.  The  steps  of  the 
platform  on  which  the  temple  rose  were  not  made 
perfectly  level,  but  slightly  convex  :  the  columns  besides 
tapering  towards  the  top  also  showed  a  swelling  in  the 
middle,  and  all  the  columns  leaned  slightly  inwards. 

Other  buildings  erected  during  this  period  were  the 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


271 


Erechtheum  with  its  famous  porch  of  the  Caryatids,  the 
diminutive  temple  of  the  Wingless  Victory,  other 
that  is  the  Victory  who  had  come  to  stay,  ^i^iidings. 
and  the  Propylaea  or  Gateway,  all  on  the  Acropolis  ;  the 
Theseum,  still  almost  perfect,  at  the  foot  of  it,  and  in 
other  parts  of  Greece,  the  temple  of  Apollo  in  Arcadia 
and  the  temple  of  Zeus  at  Olympia. 

The  temple  had  to  be  adorned,  for  was  it  not  the 
dwelling  of  a  godV  To  a  Greek,  existence  was  no 
existence  without  beauty.  And  besides,  the 
god,  who  made  his  home  in  the  temple,  must  ^'^'^P^^"* 
have  his  image.  And  so  the  architect  had  need  of  the 
sculptor,  and  the  two  arts  flourished  together,  like  two 
fair  flowers  on  one  stalk. 

Pheidias  was  responsible  for  the  sculptures  of  the 
Parthenon  and  executed  most  of  them  with  his  own 
hands.     A  few  fragments  are  still  in  situ,  a 
few  more  are  in  the  British  Museum ;  but  his  fh^elhr" - 
most  famous  work,  the  colossal  gold  and  ivory  elephantine 
statue  of  the  Virgin-goddess,  has  completely  ^^^^''^' 
disappeared.   The  figure  was  thirty-nine  feet  high.    The 
goddess   stood,    robed    and    armed,    with    shield    and 
allegorical  helmet,   the  long  robe   and   armour  being 
made  of  pure  gold  (to  the  value  of  about  £150,000), 
while  the  face  and  hands   were  of  ivory.      The  whole 
statue  was  most  exquisitely  finished,  even  the  sides  of 
the  sandal-soles  being  covered  with  elaborate  carving. 

Pheidias  also  made  a  colossal  statue  of  Zeus  for  the 
temple  at  Olympia,  which  was,  perhaps,  even  more  ad- 
mired. It  was  also  of  a  great  size,  about  forty  The  Zeus  of 
feet  high,  though  the  god  sat  in  a  chair,  and  Olympia. 
was  made  of  ivory  and  gold.  The  praise  of  the  ancients, 
both  Greek  and  Roman,  for  this  masterpiece  knew  no 
bounds.  Men  said  that  Zeus  must  have  come  down  from 
heaven  to  Pheidias's  studio  or  else  Pheidias  must  have 


272 


TllK    ANCUMNT   WOULJ) 


climbud  up  into  boa  veil  to  see  liiiu  there.  But  this 
statue,  like  that  of  Athene,  was  too  precious  to  escape 
destruction.  It  has  gone  and  left  no  trace,  except  a  few 
broken  fragments  of  its  pedestal. 

Pheidias,  the  heaven-l)orn  artist,  died  in  prison  of 
neglect,  at  the  early  age  of  lifty-eight.  He  was 
Myron  convictcd  of  impiety  because  he  had  dared  to 

Poiycieitus,  introduce  portraits  of  himself  and  Pericles 
copas.  among  the  figures  on  the  shield  of  his 
Athene !  So  unworthy  is  the  world  of  its  noblest 
sons.  But  the  inspiration  continued  to  flow  in  a 
steady  stream.  Myron,  the  Boeotian,  created  the 
"  Discobolus,'*  Poiycieitus  of  Argos,  famous  for  his 
bronzes,  was  the  author  of  the  famous  *'  Doryphorus  " 
or  **  Spear-bearer,"  universally  admired  and  looked  up 
to  by  common  consent  as  the  "  Canon  "  or  *'  Standard  " 
for  the  perfection  of  its  harmonious  proportions.  A 
little  later  arose  a  new  school  aiming  at  greater  light- 
ness, grace  and  elegance,  its  two  chief  exponents  being 
Scopas,  a  native  of  Paros  the  home  of  the  whitest  and 
most  exquisite  marble,  and  Praxiteles,  probably  an 
Athenian.  The  former  of  these  helped  in  the  sculptures 
of  the  world-renowned  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus 
^^  and  of  the  Mausoleum  at  Halicarnassus,  while 

"  Hermes "  Praxiteles  will  live  for  ever  as  the  poet  whose 
ofPraxiteies.  g^^^j   conceived  that  miracle  of  beauty,   the 

*'  Hermes  "  of  Olympia.  Like  the  Parthenon  pediment- 
sculptures  now  in  the  British  Museum,  this  statue  is  an 
original :  we  are  here  face  to  face  with  a  work  of  the 
master's  own  hand.  No  photographs  or  drawings  can 
afford  even  an  approximate  idea  of  its  surpassing  beauty. 
The  casts  of  it  in  our  museums  are  almost  revolting  to 
any  one  who  has  seen  the  glorious  original.  The  differ- 
ence is  like  that  between  a  corpse  and  a  body  glowing 
and  throbbing  with  life.     The  marble  seems  to  be  alive. 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


273 


And  it  is :  tho  Hermes  created  by  the  soul  and  hand  of 
Iraxitelos  can  never  die. 

Tlie   art  had    reached  its    zenith;    "the    force   of 
nature  could   no    further    go."     But    another    name 
claims  a  passmg  notice.    That  noble  master- 
piece, the  "  Apoxyomenos,"  was  the  work  of   '''"PP""' 
Lysippus,  of  Sicyon.    Alexander  the  Great  considered 
him  the  best  sculptor  of  his  age,  and  refused  to  sit  for 
ns  portrait  to  any  other.    Last,  but  not  least,  came 
that  glorious  Aplirodite,  unearthed  in  Melos  and  known 
as  the  "  Venus  of  Milo,"  and  now  the  most  precious 
treasure  in  the  Louvre,  an  original,  like  the  ..yenusof 

Hermes,"  and  by  some  critics  regarded  as  MUo." 
the  noblest  of  all  ancient  statues.    It  was  made  most 
probably  after  the  age  of  Alexander,  but  both  date  and 
author  are  matters  of  conjecture. 

As    miglit    naturally   be    supposed,   sculpture    did 
not  stand  alone.     The  sister  art  of  painting  had  its 
votaries    too.      It   has    already   been    seen    that    the 
Greeks  of  the  best  period  employed  colour 
both  in  architecture  and  in  sculpture,  and  ^»^""»- 
before  condemning  a  practice    so   repugnant    to   our 
modern  ideas  of  good  taste,  we  should  reflect  that  a 
1  iieidias  was  at  least  as  good  a  judge  as  ourselves,  and 
therefore  must  have  had  good  reasons   for  doing  as 
he  did.     The  tone  of  a  Hermes  of  Olympia  or  a  Venus 
of  M.lo   after  more  than  twenty  centuries  is  a  very 
different  thing  from  tho  hard  and  chilling  whiteness  of 
Parian  marble  fresh  from  tho  sculptor's  chisel.     So  the 
artist   sought  to  anticipate   the    mellowing   touch  of 
time. 

But  painting  had  its  own  life  to  live  independently 
of  sculpture.  Unfortunately,  to  the  world's  everlastinrr 
loss  we  have  to  be  content  here  with  even  less  than 
in   that    other    field.      We  have,   it    is    true,   a  long 

T 


274 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


catalogue  of  illustrious  names,  but  the  gallery,  once  so 
well  filled,  is  empty.    Vases  there  are  not  a 
fngs^o^b^st    few,  but— with  all  respect  be  it  said,  for  some 
period  of  them  are  exquisite— they  represent  an  in- 

extant.  ^^^.^^  branch  of  the  art;  frescoes,  too,  a  goodly 

number  and  some  of  surpassing  merit,  but  even  they 
were  painted  by  inferior  hands  in  a  later  and  inferior 
age  for  inferior  patrons.  Such  are  the  frescoes  dis- 
covered at  Pompeii  and  preserved  partly  in  situ,  partly 
in  the  Naples  Museum,  of  which  more  anon.  But  for  an 
idea  of  the  great  pictures  of  the  great  age  we  are  left  to 
anecdotes  and  the  recorded  judgments  of  antiquity.  Of 
the  works  themselves  not  a  shred  remains. 

In  the  glorious  Fifth  Century  B.C.  there  was  first 
Polygnotus  of  Thasos,  who  invented  the  art  of  fore- 
shortening, and  was  famous  for  the  correct 
Polygnotus.  ^^.^^.i^g  and  nobility  of  his  historical  com- 
positions, and  earned  the  warm  praise  of  Aristotle. 
His  best  known  pictures  were  the  ^'Sack  of  Troy," 
"Hades,"  and  others  at  Delphi.  His  con- 
^^^^'  temporary,  the  Athenian  Micon,  made  himself 

a  name  by  his  ''  Battle   of  Marathon."     Apollodorus, 
likewise  of  Athens,  earned  the  name  of  the 
Apollodoms.  ,,  gbadower,"  from  his  striking  treatment  of 
licrht  and  shade.     Zeuxis  of  Heraclea  attained  a  higher 
""  standard  of  execution.     His   female   figures 

Zeuxis.  breathed  a  peculiar  charm,  and  his  "  Helen  " 
at  Croton  was  famous  the  world  over.  As  for  technical 
perfection,  he  is  said  to  have  painted  a  bunch  of  grapes 
which  the  very  birds  mistook  for  real  ones  and  flew  in  at 
his  window  to  peck.  Parrhasius  of  Ephesus,  his 
Parrhasius.    ^.^^j^  ^^^  j^-^^  ^^  j^jg  q^^  ground  and  painted 

a  curtain  so  wonderfully  that  Zeuxis  walked  up  to  the 
frame  to  draw  it,  thinking  it  concealed  a  picture  beneath. 
These  stories  sound  almost  incredible,  but  they  at  any  rate 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


275 


show  what  was  thought  by  Greeks  of  the  technical  skill 
of  their  great  masters.  It  is  pleasing  in  these  modern 
days  of  hurry  and  superficiality  to  hear  from  Plutarch 
that  Zeuxis  boasted  of  the  time  he  took  over  his  pictures. 
Aristides  of  Thebes  is  known  to  have  received  very 
high  prices  for  his  works,  on  one  occasion  close  on 
^4000  for  a  battle  scene,  while  two  centuries  later  one 
of  his  pictures  fetched  six  times  that  amount.  He 
had  become  an  -  old  master '' :  how  little  the  world  of 
fashion  has  changed ! 

But   the  prince   of  Greek  painters  would   seem  to 
have   been    Apelles   of  Colophon.     He  was  the  only 
painter,  as  Lysippus  was  the  only  sculptor 
to  whom  Alexander  the  Great  would  consent  ^^'"''• 
to  sit  for  a  portrait.      One  of  these  portraits  was  in 
the     temple    of    Artemis    at     Ephesus,    representing 
Alexander   hurling    the  thunderbolts  of  Zeus    with  a 
hand  which  appeared  to  stand  right  out  of  the  picture 
towards   the  spectator.      But    his  most   famous   chef- 
d  ceuvre  was  his  "  Aphrodite  rising  from  the  Sea"  repre- 
sentmg  the  goddess  stepping  out  of  the  waves  half- veiled 
in  a  pearly  mist  formed  by  the  water  she  was  wringing 
from  her  hair.    The  picture  was  long  afterwards  bought 
for  a  huge  sum  by  the  Emperor  Augustus  and  placed  in 
the  temple  of  Venus  at  Rome.     Apelles  amassed  a  great 
tortune,  which   did  not  however  spoil  him.     Finding 
that   his  contemporary  and  friendly  rival   Protogenes 
the  Rhodian  was  not  sufficiently  appreciated,  he  offered 
him  an  enormous  sum  for  his  unsold  pictures,  giving 
out  that  he  meant  to  sell  them  as  his  own,  and  thus 
made  the  Rhodians  realize  what  an  artist  they  had 
among  them.    His  untiring  devotion  to  his  art  was  the 
origin  of  the  saying,  **  nulla  dies  sine  linea,"  and  it  was 
he  who   after   readily  accepting   and  acting  upon  the 
criticism  of  a  cobbler  on  a  sandal  worn  by  one  of  his 


276 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


277 


figures,  when  the  critic  encouraged  by  the  artist's 
acquiescence  proceeded  next  to  find  fault  with  the 
painting  of  the  leg,  pulled  him  up  short  with  ''  Let  the 
cobbler  stick  to  his  last.'* 

All  gone  to  dust :  not  a  square  inch  of  these  masters' 
work  remains.  Yet,  though  the  best  is  lost  for  ever,  it  is 
still  possible  to  form  some  idea  at  least  of  the 
^'cMUes  character  of  ancient  painting.  At  Pompeii  a 
andBriseis"  number  of  frescoes  of  the  Roman  imperial 
painting.  ^^^.^^^  ^^  considerable  merit  have  been^  by 
marvellous  good  fortune  rescued  from  destruction. 
Perhaps  the  most  beautiful  of  all  is  the  picture  of 
"Achilles  delivering  Briseis  to  the  heralds,"  one  of 
the  most,  perhaps  the  most,  beautiful  specimen  of 
ancient  painting  preserved  to  our  times. 

The  lower  part  of  the  picture  is  much  damaged,  but 
enough   has  fortunately  been   spared   to  enable   us  to 
judge  the  quality  of  the  composition  and  the  execution. 
The  scene  is  laid  in  Achilles'  tent.     The  royal  heralds 
are   standing  in   a   group   on   the   left,    while   Briseis 
approaches   from    the   riglit,   led    by  the   hand  by   a 
youthful  figure,   perhaps   Patroclus,  who  looks  round 
at  his  charge  and  turns  his  back  to  the  spectator.    In 
the  centre  sits  Achilles,  nude  to  the  waist,  with  a  lance 
resting  in  his  left   hand,  while   his  right  is  open  and 
extended  in  a  fine  gesture  towards  the  heralds.     Behind 
their  master's  chair  stand  armed  guards,  the  burnished 
shield  of  one  of  whom  is  cleverly  disposed  so  as  to  set 
off  the  head  of  the  principal  figure,  and  reminds  one 
irresistibly  of  the   halo   of  mediaeval   paintings.     All 
eyes  are  turned  towards  the  fair  captive,  who  is  heavily 
draped   and  veiled,  and  advances  with  reluctant  step 
and  averted   gaze.     But    the   spectator's   attention   is 
immediately  arrested  by  the   head  of  Achilles,  which 
is  truly  magnificent.     Dishevelled  curly  hair,  straight 


nose,  full  and  strongly  curved  lips,  finely  moulded 
chm,  and  well-turned  neck— the  whole  face  is  aglow 
with  manly  life  and  strength  :  the  eyes,  set  wide  and 
deep,  seem  to  dilate  as  we  look,  and  are  a-fire  with  a 
fierce  flame  of  concentrated  longing  and  rage  and  dis- 
apponitment.  The  expression  once  seen  can  never  be 
forgotten. 

When  we  remember  that  this  is  only  an  imperfectly 
preserved  wall  painting  executed  by  an  unknown  artist 
in  an  inferior  age  in  a  small  Italian  seaside  town,  our 
imagmation  will  begin  to  realize  what  the  world  has 
lost  in  the  destruction  of  the  Greek  masterpieces  of  the 
fifth  and  fourth  centuries  b.o.  What  with  its  temples, 
its  paintings,  its  statues  of  marble,  bronze,  ivory  and 
gold,  adorning  in  endless  profusion  every  town  of  any 
importance,  the  Greek  world  in  the  Golden  Age  must 
have  resembled  a  well-filled  museum,  far  more  glorious 
than  any  of  to-day's,  or  even  all  of  them  put  together 
smce  the  pride  of  all  of  them  together  is  but  a  few  small 
crumbs  fallen  from  the  superabundant  Feast  of  Beauty, 
which  Time  and  Vandalism  have  almost  swept  into 
oblivion. 

^  But  the  Greek  had  other  avenues  to  his  soul  beside 

his  eyes,  and  the  best  is  yet  to  tell.     The  chief  glory 

of  Hellas,  the    ''  Cullinan  Diamond  "  of  her  Greek 

crown,    was    her    literature.     It    has    been  literature. 

described  by  a  modern  English  critic  as  the  one  truly 

origmal  literature  of  Europe.    At  any  rate,  it  was  the 

first,   all   others   are  its   debtors,   and,   whatever  the 

claims  of  modern  commercialism,  it  remains  immortal, 
for — 

"  A  thing  of  beauty  is  a  joy  for  over." 

It  would  be  manifestly  impossible  to  give  even  a 
sketch  of  the  birth  and  growth  of  Greek  literature  in 
one    short    chapter.     I   shall    not    even   set    down   a 


278 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


279 


Kpic  poetry. 


catalogue  of  authors.  My  hope  is  rather  that  the 
perusal  of  a  few  selected  specimens  may  conjure  up 
were  it  but  the  faintest  glimmer  of  the  wonder  and 
glory  of  that  marvellous  treasure-house,  and  impel  the 
reader  to  further  exploration  on  his  own  account. 

On  the  threshold  we  are  met  by  the  Homeric  Poems, 
Iliad  and  Odyssey,  comj^osed,  let  us  say,  about  900  B.C., 
from  which  extracts  have  already  been  quoted 
in  a  previous  chapter.  These  are  followed 
by  the  **  Cyclic  "  poems,  the  Trojan  Cycle,  the  Theban 
Cycle,  and  others,  telling,  for  instance,  of  the  **  Sack  of 
Troy"  and  completing  the  lives  of  the  chief  characters 
in  the  great  epic.  About  a  century  after  the  composi- 
tion of  the  Homeric  Poems,  Hesiod  the  Boeotian  wrote 
his  didactic  hexameters  **  Works  and  Days"  containing 
moral  precepts,  and  the  **  Theogony  "  an  account  of  the 
origin  of  the  gods  and  the  world. 

Then  there  came  a  change  :  a  new  spirit  breathed, 
a  more  personal  and  passionate  note  was  heard  in 
Lyric  poetry.    For  about  two  centuries  the  field 

poetry.  ^^s    in   the   possession  of  a  noble   army  of 

elegiac,    iambic,    and    lyric  poets,    like    Archilochus, 
Alcaeus,  Sappho  and  Pindar,  besides  many  others. 

Of   Sappho's  lyrics   scarcely   any  remain.     One  or 
two  of  her  masterpieces,   however,  were  so 
exquisite     they    could    not    die  ;   time    and 
ignorance  were  ashamed  to  destroy  them. 

There  is  a  note  of  sadness  in 

"  Sweet  Rose  of  May  I    Sweet  Rose  of  May  1 

Whither,  ah  whither  fled  away  ?  " 
•'  What's  gone  no  time  can  e'er  restore — 

I  come  no  more,  I  come  no  more."  ♦ 

♦  J.  H.  Merivale  in  "Bland's   Collections   from   the   Greek   An- 
thology." 


Sappho. 


And-still  more  in 


"  Oh,  my  sweet  Mother— 'tis  in  vain— 

I  cannot  weave,  as  once  I  wove — 
So  wilder'd  is  my  heart  and  brain 

With  thinking  of  that  youth  I  love."  ♦ 

But  was  rapture  ever  more  fervidly  expressed  than  in 
the  fragment  beginning — 

Blest  as  th'  immortal  gods  is  he. 

The  youth  whose  eyes  may  look  on  thee, 

Whose  ears  thy  tongue's  sweet  melody 

May  still  devour  ! 
Thou  smilest  too  ?— sweet  smile,  whose  charm 
Has  struck  my  soul  with  wild  alarm, 
And,  when  I  see  thee,  bids  disarm 

Each  vital  power.  + 

And,  lastly,  here  are  some  lines  from  the  exquisite  hymn 
to  Aphrodite : 

Thou  once  didst  leave  almighty  Jove 
And  all  the  golden  roofs  above  ; 
The  car  thy  wanton  sparrows  drew, 
Hovering  in  air  they  lightly  flew  ; 
As  to  my  bower  they  winged  their  way 
I  saw  their  quivering  pinions  play. 

The  birds  dismissed  (while  you  remain) 
Bore  back  their  empty  car  ao^ain  • 
Then  you,  with  looks  divinely  mild. 
In  every  heavenly  feature  smiled, 
And  asked  what  new  complaints  I  made 
And  why  I  called  you  to  my  aid. 

•  ♦  *  ♦  * 

Who  does  thy  tender  heart  subdue  ? 
Tell  me,  my  Sappho,  tell  me,  who  ? 

Though  now  he  shuns  thy  longing  arms, 
He  soon  shall  court  thy  slighted  charms'; 
Though  now  thy  offerings  he  despise, 
He  soon  to  thee  shall  sacrifice ; 


♦  T.  Moore,  "Evenings  in  Greece,"  First  Evening. 

t  J.  H.  Merivale  in  "Bland's  Collections  from  the  Greek  Anthology." 


Pindar. 


'2H()  THE  ANCIENT  WOBLP 

Though  now  ho  froozo,  ho  soon  nhall  burn, 
And  bo  thy  victim  in  his  turn.* 

•  •  •  •  * 

The  poems  and  fragments  of  Sappho  are  scattered 
pearls  :  how  glorious  must  the  complete  string  have 
hoen  !  Ihit  we  may  not  linger.  In  the  case 
of  rindar  we  are  more  fortunate  and  possess 
a  considerable  amount  of  his  poetry.  AVo  have  now  left 
the  **  isles  of  Greece,  where  burning  Sappho  loved  and 
sung,*'  and,  as  wo  set  foot  on  the  mainland  in  the 
glorious  Fifth  Century,  our  first  look  is  arrested  by 

Tho  priilo  and  nniphi  pinion, 

That  tho  Tlicbun  oaglo  bear, 
Sailing  with  supremo  dominion 

Thro'  the  azuro  doop  of  air.f 

Take  this  passage  from  his  Second  Olympic  Ode,  when 
the  poet  describes  the  Elysian  fields,  the  Greek 
Paradise : 

There  tlio  soft  Ocean-brcezos  breathe  around 

The  islands  of  the  blest ;  there  glow  tho  flowers 

With  gold  ;  enlivening,  some,  the  painted  ground  ; 

Some  deck  tho  graceful  trees ;  some  drink  their  life 

From  tho  still  water;  -from  all  these  they  fill 

Their  hands,  and  for  their  brows  bright  chaplets  weave.  J 

Or  this  from  tho  Eighth  Pythian  Ode,  on  the  transi- 
toriness  of  human  life  : 

Thus  iu  short  space  of  time  the  joys  of  men 
Expand,  and  thus  in  turn  fall  to  tho  ground 
Like  shaken  fruit,  when  Fate  has  changed  her  mind. 
We  are  but  of  a  day.     What  then  is  man  ? 
What  is  ho  not  ?  he  is  a  shadow's  dream. § 

•  Ambrose  Philips. 

t  Gray,  "  Tlio  Progress  of  Poesy." 

I  *'  Translations  from  Pindar,"  by  H.  S.  Tremenhoero,  p.  11. 

§  Ibid.,  p.  89,  Pyth.  viii.  92. 


-^^^W'^KWii^fsa: '^C^i*^ 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


281 


But  it   IS    in   the    works    of    tho  great    Athenian 
dramatists   that   true  joy  is  to  be   found.     There  we 
stand  on  the  topmost  pinnacle.     Where  there 
18  so  much  that  is  so  good,  it  is  difficult  to  ItLian 
select.     Here  are  some  lines  from  Aeschylus    ^^ama. 
the  earliest  of  the  three  great  tragedians,  the  ^'^^^y^^«- 
patriot  who    fought    at    Marathon   and    Salamis,   the 
aristocrat,  the  champion  of  the  ancestral  religion,  and 
admirer  of  the  national  legends,  which  he  ennobles  by 
iJis  philosopliy  and  magnificent  diction. 

Prometheus,  the  benefactor  who  conferred  fire  and 
other  blessings  on  mankind,  has  just  been  fastened  to 
the  rocks  of  his  martyrdom.  As  the  tormentors  with- 
draw,  he  exclaims  : 

♦  Ethereal  air,  and  yo  swift-winged  winds, 
Ye  rivers  springing  from  fresh  founts,  yo  waves. 
That  o'er  tho  interminable  ocean  wreathe 
Your  crisped  smiles,  thou  all-producing  earth, 
And  thoe,' bright  sun,  I  call,  whose  flaming  orb 
Views  the  wide  world  beneath,  see  what,  a  god 
I  suffer  from  the  gods  ;  with  what  fierce  pains,' 
JJehold,  what  tortures  for  revolving  ages 
I  here  must  struggle  ;  such  unseemly  chains 
This  new-rais'd  ruler  of  the  gods  devis'd. 
Ah  mo  !     That  groan  bursts  from  my  anguish'd  heart, 

My  present  woes  and  future  to  bemoan. 

When  shall  these  suff'rings  find  their  destin'd  end  ? 

But  why  that  vain  enquiry  ?     My  clear  sight 

Looks  through  the  future ;  unforeseen  no  iU 

Shall  come  on  me  :  behoves  mo  then  to  bear 

Patient  iny  destin'd  fate,  knowing  how  vain 

To  struggle  with  necessity's  strong  pow'r. 

But  to  complain,  or  not  complain,  alike  ' 

Is  unavailable.     For  favours  shown 

To  mortal  man  I  bear  this  weight  of  woe ; 

Hid  in  a  hollow  cave  tho  fount  of  fire 

I  privately  convey 'd,  of  ev'ry  art 


It: 


♦  Aesch.,  "Prometheus  Bound,"  88.    Tr.  byR.  Potter. 


I 


282  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

Productive,  and  the  noblest  gift  to  men, 
And  for  this  slight  offence,  woe,  woe  is  me ! 
I  bear  these  chains,  fix'd  to  this  savage  rock, 
Unshelter'd  from  th'  inclemencies  of  th'  air. 


Ye  sec  me  bound,  a  wretched  god,  abhorr'd 
By  Jove,  and  ev'ry  god  that  treads  his  courts, 
For  my  fond  love  to  man.     Ah  me  !  again 
I  hear  the  sound  of  liutt'ring  nigh  ;  the  air 
Pants  to  the  soft  beat  of  light-moving  wings ; 
All  that  approaches  now  is  dreadful  to  me. 

In  another  play,  **  The  Seven  against  Thebes," 
Eteocles  reflects  how  often  the  innocent  suffer  with 
the  guilty. 

♦  I  mourn  the  destiny  that  blends  the  just 
With  these  unhallow'd  wretches.     Nothing  worse 
In  whate'or  cause,  than  impious  fellowship  ; 
Nothing  of  good  is  reap'd  ;  for  when  the  field 
Is  sown  with  wrong,  the  ripen'd  fruit  is  death. 
If  with  a  desperate  band,  whose  hearts  are  hot 
With  villany,  the  pious  hoists  his  sails. 
The  vengeance  of  the  Gods  bursts  on  the  bark, 
And  sinks  him  with  his  heav'n-detested  crew. 
If  'midst  a  race  inhospitably  bent 
On  savage  deeds,  regardless  of  the  Gods, 
The  just  man  fix  his  seat,  th'  impending  wrath 
Spares  not,  but  strikes  him  with  vindictive  fury, 
Crush'd  in  the  general  ruin. 

Or  listen  to  Cassandra,  the  inspired  Trojan  princess, 
whom  Agamemnon  brings  home  as  a  captive,  bewailing 
her  own  and  her.  master's  impending  doom  and  the 
misery  of  man's  lot. 

t  This  is  the  state  of  man :  in  prosperous  fortune 
A  shadow,  passing  light,  throws  to  the  ground 


•  Aesch,,  "  Seven  against  Thebes,"  697.    Tr.  by  Potter, 
t  Aesch.,  •'  Agamemnon,"  1027.    Tr.  by  Potter. 


^.■^dmmi^mmmilf^. 


A  GOLDEN  AGE  283 

Joy's  baseless  fabric  :  in  adversity 

Comes  malice  with  a  sponge  moisten'd  in  gall. 

And  wipes  each  beauteous  character  away. 

In  another  play  the  Furies   sing  as  they  pursue 
Orestes,  who  has  murdered  his  mother : 

*  He  whose  hands  from  guilt  are  pure 
Stands  in  innocence  secure  ; 
And  from  youth  to  honour'd  age 
Fears  not  our  vindictive  rage. 
To  the  wretch  that  strives  to  hide 
Ruffian  hands  with  murder  dyed, 
Cloth'd  in  terrors  we  appear, 
Unrelentingly  severe  ; 
And,  faithful  to  the  injur'd  dead. 
Pour  our  vengeance  on  his  head. 

Equally    religious,    equally    deep    and    lofty,    but 
mellower  and  kindlier,  the  poetry  of  Sophocles,  if  not 
so  impressive,  is  more  satisfying.    It  comforts 
and  ennobles.      ,  Sophocles. 

Antigone  is  defending  her  action  in  giving  her  out- 
lawed brother's  body  honourable  burial  in  defiance  of 
Creon's  edict. 

t  Creon :    How  durst  thou  then  transgress  the  published  law  ? 
Antigone :  I  heard  it  not  from  Heaven,  nor  came  it  forth 

From  Justice,  where  she  reigns  with  Gods  below. 

They  too  have  published  to  mankind  a  law. 

Nor  thought  I  thy  commandment  of  such  might 

That  one  who  is  mortal  thus  could  overbear 

The  infallible,  unwritten  laws  of  Heaven. 

Not  now  or  yesterday  they  have  their  being, 

But  everlastingly,  and  none  can  tell 

The  hour  that  saw  their  birth.    I  would  not,  I, 

For  any  terror  of  a  man's  resolve, 

Incur  the  God-inflicted  penalty 

Of  doing  them  wrong.    That  death  would  come  I  knew 


•  "  Eumenides,"  313.    Tr.  by  Potter. 

t  "  Antigone,"  449.    Tr.  by  Lewis  Campbell. 


284 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


Without  thino  edict ; — if  before  the  time, 
I  count  it  gain.    Who  does  not  gain  by  death, 
That  lives,  as  I  do,  amid  boundless  woe  ? 
Slight  is  the  sorrow  of  such  doom  to  me. 
But  had  I  suffered  mv  own  mother's  child. 
Fallen  in  blood,  to  1)0  without  a  grave. 
That  were  indeed  a  sorrow.     This  is  none. 
And  if  thou  deem'st  me  foolish  for  my  deed, 
I  am  foolish  in  the  judgement  of  a  fool. 

And  undaunted  by  brutal  threats  the  heroic  maiden 
goes  to  her  death.  In  the  same  tragedy  there  occurs 
the  wonderful  **  Sonf]r  of  Mankind  "  :  * 


There  are  marvellous  wonders  many 

Where'er  this  world  wo  scan, 
Yet  among  them  nowhere  any 

So  groat  a  marvel  as  Man. 
To  the  white  sea's  uttermost  verges 

Afloat  this  miracle  goes. 
Forging  through  thundering  surges 

When  the  wintry  southwind  blows  : — 
And  the  Earth,  Heaven's  Mother,  divinest-born, 
The  eternal,  deathless,  unoutworn. 
Still  plied  with  an  endless  to  and  fro 
As  the  yearly  ploughshares  furrowing  go, 

By  ;Man  is  fretted  and  torn. 

The  blithe  swift  careless  races 

On  light  wing  flying  in  air 
With  speed  of  his  wit  ho  chases 

And  takes  in  a  woven  snare  : 
All  deer  in  the  wild  wood  running, 

The  deep  sea's  diverse  kind. 
Are  snared  in  toils  by  the  cunning 

Of  Man's  outrivalling  mind. 
Strength  of  the  lion,  lord  of  the  hill. 
Yields  to  Man's  overmastering  skill  ; 
With  his  proud  mane  bowing  under  the  yoke 
The  rebellious  horse  is  tamed  and  broke, 

And  the  mountain  bull  to  his  will. 


♦  "  A  Book  of  Greek  Verso,"  by  W.  Headlam,  p.  113. 


Bf'-i^JdsyW  &'^&'*ii«g«^5S"V't»^^*i<Bl«WSgSK^i^^W*&  -^ 


'''>&&>.*jS«!!rSSa^^  '&f3S 


A  GOLDEN   AGE  285 

He  hath  found  out  Speech,  and  the  giving 

Of  wings  to  his  high  proud  Thought ; 
And  the  ordered  spirit  of  living 

In  Towns  his  mind  hath  taught ; 
Shelter  from  arrowy  shafts 

Of  the  bleak  air's  frost  and  sleet ; 
There  is  nought  in  store  but  his  crafts 

Shall  have  armed  him  ready  to  meet ; 
He  fronts  with  fresh  devices 

The  future's  every  shape  : — 
Only,  despite  his  cunning. 
The  Grave  still  mocks  all  shunning  ; 
Disease  may  root  her  vices. 

But  Art  hath  learned  escape. 

And,  a  little  further,  the  Ode  to  Love :  * 

0  Warrior  Love  unquelled. 

Thou  Spoiler,  armed  for  the  raid. 
Whose  vigil  at  night  is  held 

On  the  damask  cheeks  of  a  maid  ; 
Thy  path  goes  over  the  flowing  sea. 

Thy  presence  dwells  in  the  woodland  field  ; 
Be  it  god  or  mortal  that  fain  would  flee. 

There  is  none  may  fly  thee,  but  all  must  yield 
To  the  madness  gotten  of  thee  I 

Nor  may  we  forget  "  Oedipus  at  Colonus  "  with  its 
lovely  song  beginning:! 

Friend,  in  our  land  of  conquering  steeds  thou  art  come 
To  this  Heaven-fostered  haunt,  Earth's  fairest  home, 
Gleaming  Colonos,  where  the  nightingale 
In  cool  green  covert  warbleth  ever  clear. 
True  to  the  clustering  ivy  and  the  dear 

Divine,  impenetrable  shade. 
From  wildered  boughs  and  myriad  fruitage  made, 
Sunless  at  noon,  stormless  in  every  gale. 
Wood-roving  Bacchus  there,  with  mazy  round. 
And  his  nymph  nurses  range  the  unoffended  ground. 


I 


*  Ibid,  p.  121. 

t  "  Sophocles  in  English  Verse,"  by  Lewis  Campbell. 


286 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Space  is  unkind,  but  two  more  pieces,  before  we  take 
leave  of  this  sweet  singer.  In  the  first  Ajax,  humbled 
and  sobered  by  the  disastrous  results  of  his  mad  out- 
break, is  meditating  on  obedience  to  authority :  * 

Who  rules  must  be  obeyed. 
Since  nought  so  fierce  and  terrible  but  yields 
Place  to  Authority.     Wild  Winter's  snows 
Make  way  for  bounteous  Summer's  flowery  tread, 
And  Night's  sad  orb  retires  for  lightsome  Day 
With  his  white  steeds  to  illumine  the  glad  sky. 
The  furious  storm-blast  leaves  the  groaning  sea 
Gently  to  rest.     Yea,  the  all-subdue r  Sleep 
Frees  whom  he  binds,  nor  holds  enchained  for  aye. 
And  shall  not  men  bo  taught  the  temperate  will  ? 

In  the  second,  the  last  we  shall  quote,  blind  Oedipus, 
exiled  by  his  own  sons,  reminds  Theseus  of  the  instability 
of  human  affairs.f 

Dear  son  of  Aegeus,  to  the  Gods  alone 
Comes  never  Age  nor  Death.     All  else  i'  the  world 
Time,  the  all-subduer,  merges  in  oblivion. 
Earth  and  men's  bodies  weaken,  fail,  and  perish ; 
Faith  withers,  breach  of  faith  springs  up  and  grows, 
And  neither  men  nor  cities  that  are  friends 
Breathe  the  same  spirit  with  continuing  breath. 
Love  shall  be  turned  to  hate,  and  hate  to  love, 
With  many  hereafter,  as  with  some  to-day. 

Last  in  time,  but  not  least — for  who  can  be  greatest 
or  w^ho  least  in  such  a  trinity  ? — came 

Our  Euripides,  the  human, 
With  his  droppings  of  warm  tears, 
And  his  touches  of  things  common 
TiU  they  rose  to  touch  the  spheres  1 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


287 


He  was  called  the  ''  most  tragic  "  of  the  tragedians,  and 
was  the  most  popular,  for  he  brought  the  stage  within  the 
reach  of  the  spectators,  who  saw  the  story  of 
their  own  thoughts  and  passions  reflected,  as  ^'"'^'^^^' 
in  a  mirror,  in  the  characters  of  his  plays.    If  we  may 
compare  great  things  with  small,  as  the  author  of  '* Peter 
Pan"  transforms  the  traditional  fairies  into  real  live 
boys  and  girls,  so  Euripides  made  the  legendary  heroes 
and  idealized  characters  of  the  theatre  step  down  from 
their  high  pedestals  and  live  and  speak  like  Athenian 
men  and  women  of  actual  everyday  experience.    Here 
is  the  dying  prayer  of  Alcestis  and  the  scene  in  the 
death-chamber :  * 

O  Queen,  I  go  to  the  infernal  shades, 

Yet,  ere  I  go,  with  reverence  let  mo  breathe 

My  last  request.  Protect  my  orphan  children, 

Make  my  son  happy  with  the  wife  he  loves, 

And  wed  njy  daughter  to  a  noble  husband : 

Nor  let  them,  like  their  mother,  to  the  tomb 

Untimely  sink,  but  in  their  native  land 

Be  blest  through  lengthened  life  to  honour'd  ago. 

Her  children,  as  they  hung  upon  her  robes 

Weeping,  she  rais'd,  and  clasp'd  them  to  her  breast 

Each  after  each,  as  now  about  to  die. 

Each  servant  through  the  house  burst  into  tears 

In  pity  of  their  mistress ;  she  to  each 

Stretch'd  her  right  hand  ;  nor  was  there  one  so  mean 

To  whom  she  spoke  not,  and  admitted  him 

To  speak  to  her  again  .... 

In  another  place  (in  the  Medea)  the  poet  reflects  on 
hasty  judgments ;  f 

Many  have  I  known 
Of  honourable  birth,  who  lost  respect. 


*  Ajax,  665.    "  Sophocles  in  English  Verse,"  by  Lewis  Campbell, 
t  Oedipus  at  Colonus,  607.    Ibid. 


♦  "  Tragedies  of  Euripides."      Tr.  by  R.  Potter.      Vol.  i.  p    186 
Ale.  167. 

t  Ibid.,  p.  256.     Med.  214. 


288  THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 

Some  for  rotiriug  from  the  public  eyo, 
And  otbors  as  too  lavish  of  their  prosonco  : 
And  some,  who  lovod  tlio  calm  of  peaceful  life, 
Have  boon  defamed  as  spiritless  and  slotliful : 
For  'tis  not  by  the  eyo  we  rightly  judge 
Of  truth  ;  whoe'er,  before  he  knows  the  heart, 
Conceives  disliiie  by  sight,  in  nothing  wrong'd, 
Does  ill. 

A  little  further  in  the  same  play,  Medea,  resolved  to 
murder  her  children,  feels  her  purpose  waver :  * 

In  vain  I  nurtured  you,  my  sons  ;  in  vain 
I  labour'd,  and  consumed  myself  with  cares  ; 
In  vain  I  bore  a  mother's  painful  throes. 
There  was  a  time  when  I  had  many  hopes, 
Wretch  as  I  am,  in  you ;  that  your  fond  love 
With  nursing  diligence  would  tend  my  age, 
And  decently  in  death  compose  my  limbs. 
The  wish  of  mortals :  now  that  pleasing  thought 
la  vanish'd  ;  and  my  life,  deprived  of  you, 
Must  wear  away  in  misery  and  woo. 
Your  mother  never  with  your  longing  eyes 
Shall  you  view  more  ;  another  state  of  life 
Is  yours.    Alas,  alas,  why  are  your  eyes. 
My  sons,  fixed  fondly  on  me  ?    Why  that  smile  ? 
'Tis  your  last  smile.  -Ah  mo,  what  shall  I  do  ? 
My  heart  sinks  in  me. 

Songs  of  exquisite  beauty  are  scattered  broadcast 
through  the  plays.  We  cannot  quote  even  one  in  its 
entirety,  but  here  are  some  lines,  taken  almost  at  random, 
in  praise  of  Humility.t 

'Tis  the  life  of  quiet  breath, 

'Tis  the  simple  and  the  true. 
Storm  nor  earthquake  shattereth, 

Nor  shall  aught  the  house  undo 
Where  they  dwell.  For,  far  away, 
Hidden  from  the  eyes  of  day, 


<i 


•  Ibid.,  p.  294,  Med.  117. 

t  Bacch.   388  foil.      "  The    Athenian     Drama,"    vol.    iii.     p. 
Euripides,"  by  Gilbert  Murray. 


9G. 


A  GOLDEN  AGE  289 

Watchers  are  there  in  the  skies,    • 

That  can  see  man's  life,  and  prize 
Deeds  well  done  by  things  of  clay. 

liut  the  world's  Wise  are  not  wise, 
Claiming  more  than  mortal  may. 
Life  is  such  a  little  thing ; 

Lo,  their  present  is  departed. 
And  the  dreams  to  which  they  cling 
Come  not.     Mad  imagining 

Theirs,  I  ween,  and  empty-hearted. 

Real  independence  was  as  rare  then  as  it  is  now  : 

Faugh  !    There  is  no  man  free  in  all  this  world  1 
Slaves  of  possessions,  slaves  of  fortune,  hurled 
This  way  and  that.     Or  else  the  multitude 
Hath  hold  on  him  ;  or  laws  of  stone  and  wood 
Constrain,  and  will  not  lot  him  nso  tho  soul 
Within  him  I  ♦ 

The  poet  feels  the  spell  of  domestic  joys,  filial 
obedience,  parental  love,  and  knows  how  to  give  sound 
advice  to  youth  and  age.  Some  of  his  criticisms  of 
current  fashions  and  ideas  savour  of  Eudyard  Kipling's 
'*  flannelled  fool  "  and  **  muddied  oaf  "  poetry. 

But  let  it  not  be  supposed  that  the  Athenians  were 
always  in  deadly  earnest.  They  were  intensely  human. 
They  could  unbend  and  so  could  their  poets.  Aristo 
There  never  was  a  merrier  wit  than  Aris-  phanes. 
tophanes,  and  we  can  picture  his  audience,  who  not  long 
before  had  felt  themselves  mightily  improved  by  a 
lecture  from  Euripides,  holding  their  sides  with  laughter 
at  his  broad  mirth.  Take  only  one  instance  out  of  ten 
thousand,  from  the  ''Birds."t 

Ye  children  of  Man  1  whose  life  is  a  span, 
Protracted  with  sorrow  from  day  to  day. 


*  "  Euripides,"   in   "  The  Athenian   Drama,"  vol.  iii,  by  Gilbert 
Murray.    Introd.  p.  xlviii.  '     ^  ^"^en 

t  "  Birds,"  695.    Tr.  by  George  Frere. 


U 


290  THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 

Naked  and  featherless,  feeble  and  querulous, 

Sickly  calamitous  creatures  of  clay  I 

Attend  to  the  words  of  the  Sovereign  Birds, 

Immortal,  illustrious,  lords  of  the  air, 

Who  survey  from  on  high,  with  a  merciful  eye. 

Your  struggles  of  misery,  labour  and  care. 


Before  the  creation  of  Aether  and  Light, 
Chaos  and  Night  together  were  plight. 
In  the  dungeon  of  Erebus  foully  bedight. 
Nor  Ocean,  or  Air,  or  substance  was  there. 
Or  solid  or  rare,  or  figure  or  form. 
But  horrible  Tartarus  rul'd  in  the  storm  : 
At  length,  in  the  dreary  chaotical  closet 
Of  Erebus  old,  was  a  privy  deposit 
By  Night  the  primaeval  in  secrecy  laid ; 
A  Mystical  Egg,  that  in  silence  and  shade 
Was  brooded  and  hatched  ;  till  time  came  about. 
And  Love,  the  delightful,  in  glory  flew  out. 
In  rapture  and  light,  exulting  and  bright, 
Sparkling  and  florid,  with  stars  in  his  forehead. 
His  forehead  and  hair,  and  a  flutter  and  flare. 
As  he  rose  in  the  air,  triumphantly  furnish'd, 
To  range  his  dominions,  on  glittering  pinions. 
All  golden  and  azure,  and  blooming  and  burnish'd : 


Like  him,  we  can  ramble,  and  gambol  and  fly 
O'er  ocean  and  earth,  and  aloft  to  the  sky  : 
And  all  the  world  over,  we're  friends  to  the  lover. 
And  when  other  means  fail,  we  are  found  to  prevail, 
When  a  Peacock  or  Pheasant  is  sent  as  a  present. 

All  lessons  of  primary  daily  concern 
You  have  learnt  from  the  Birds,  and  continue  to  learn. 
Your  best  benefactors  and  early  instructors  ; 
We  give  you  the  warning  of  seasons  returning. 

When  the  Cranes  are  arranged  and  muster  afloat 
In  the  middle  air,  with  a  creaking  note. 
Steering  away  to  the  Lybian  sands  ; 
Then  careful  farmers  sow  their  lands  ; 
The  crazy  vessel  is  haul'd  ashore. 
The  sail,  the  ropes,  the  rudder  and  oar 
Are  all  unshipp'd  and  hous'd  in  store. 


A  GOLDEN  AGE  291 

The  shepherd  is  warn'd,  by  the  Kite  reappearing. 
To  muster  his  flock,  and  be  ready  for  shearing. 
You  quit  your  old  cloak  at  the  Swallow's  behest, 
In  assurance  of  summer,  and  purchase  a  vest. 

For  Delphi,  for  Ammon,  Dodona,  in  fine, 
For  every  oracular  temple  and  shrine. 
The  Birds  are  a  substitute  equal  and  fair. 
For  on  us  you  depend,  and  to  us  you  repair 
For  council  and  aid,  when  a  marriage  is  made, 
A  purchase,  a  bargain,  a  venture  in  trade  : 
Unlucky  or  lucky,  whatever  has  struck  ye. 
An  Ox  or  an  Ass,  that  may  happen  to  pass, 
A  voice  in  the  street,  or  a  slave  that  you  meet, 
A  Name  or  a  Word  by  chance  overheard, 
If  you  deem  it  an  Omen,  you  call  it  a  "  Bird  "  ; 
And  if  birds  are  your  omens,  it  clearly  will  follow, 
That  birds  are  a  proper  prophetic  Apollo. 

Then  take  us  as  gods,  and  you'll  soon  find  the  odds, 
We'll  serve  for  all  uses,  as  Prophets  and  Muses ; 

♦  ♦  *  •  ♦ 

And  never  bilk  you  of  pigeon's  milk 
Or  potable  gpld  ;  you  shall  live  to  grow  old. 
In  laughter  and  mirth,  on  the  face  of  the  earth, 
Laughing,  quaffing,  carouzing,  bouzing. 

Your  only  distress  shall  be  the  excess 

Of  ease  and  abundance  and  happiness. 

And  now  what  shall  we  say  of  the  prose  literature  of 
Greece  ?    Perhaps  the  first  point  to  notice  is  the  great 
disparity  in   age   between  the   two   sisters:  Prose 
Prose  was  not  born  until  after  Poetry  had  Writers, 
reached  the  fullness  of  her  stature  and  beauty.    Heca- 
taeus  of  Miletus,  who  flourished  about  500  b.c,  wrote  a 
*'  Tour  of  the  Earth,"  but  the  first  real  writer  of  literary 
prose  was  Herodotus,  the  "Father  of  History"  (born 
at  Halicarnassus   in  484  b.c),  whose  theme  was  the 
struggle  between  the  East  and  the  West,  culminating  in 
the  invasions  of  Darius  and  Xerxes.   The  style  is  simple 
and  natural,  and  the  book  abounds   in  well-told,  de- 
lightful stories.    A  more  scientific,  but  no  less  dramatic, 
historian  was  Thucydides,  who  wrote  the  history  of  the 


i. 


292 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Peloponnesian  War,  and  whose  style  is  more  elaborate 
and  more  difficult.  But  the  reader  is  well  repaid  the 
trouble  of  mastering  it.  Thucydides  is  a  real  artist, 
but  always  subordinates  picturesqueness  to  accuracy. 
He  looks  beneath  the  surface  and  searches  for  the 
causes  of  events,  and  may  be  regarded  as  the  founder 
of  historical  criticism.  Among  orators  whose  speeches 
have  been  preserved,  were  Isocrates  and  Demosthenes, 
while  philosophy  claimed  Plato,  the  pupil  of  Socrates, 
and  Aristotle,  the  tutor  of  Alexander.  The  two  extracts 
which  follow  are  taken  from  Plato's  **Eepublic,"  in 
which  he  drew  a  picture  of  his  Ideal  State. 

I.     The  Go-as-you-please  State,  iwimJarJy  ealled 

Democraejj.* 

*'  Now  what  is  the  character  of  Democracy  ?  May 
we  not  say,  in  the  first  place,  that  the  citizens  are 
free  and  that  the  state  is  full  of  liberty  and  freedom 
of  speech  and  permission  for  anybody  to  do  as  he 
pleases  ? 

That's  what  they  say,  he  replied. 

Then,  said  I,  this  form  of  government  seems  likely 
to  prove  the  fairest  of  all  to  contemplate  !  Like  a  many- 
coloured  coat  embroidered  with  all  manner  of  flowers,  it 
will  be  beautiful  with  a  pattern  of  all  kinds  of  cha- 
racters. And  perhaps,  as  women  and  children  admire 
variety  of  colour,  so  many  people  will  consider  this  form 
of  government  the  most  worthy  of  admiration.  You 
might  go  to  a  democratically  governed  city  as  you  would 
to  a  constitution-fair  and  pick  out  the  type  that  suits  your 
fancy  best  and  set  that  up. 

There  would  certainly  be  no  lack  of  patterns  to  select 
from,  he  said. 

*  Plato,  "  Republic,"  557. 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


293 


And  what  a  wonderful  and  delightful  life,   I  con- 
tinued.     No   necessity  to    govern,    even   if    you    are 
eminently  fitted  to  do  so,  nor  to  be  governed  either, 
unless  you  are  so  disposed;   nor  to  go  to  war  when 
your  fellow-citizens   go    to   war,   nor   to   be   at   peace 
when  the  rest  are  at  peace,  unless  you  like.     If  there 
is  a  law  preventing  you  from  holding  office  or  sitting 
on  a  jury,  that  is  no  reason  at  all  why  you  should 
not  do  both,  if  you  have  a  mind  to.     Is  not  the  modesty 
of  some  of  our  present-day  convicts  quite  charming  ? 
Or  have   you   never   seen,    under   a   democracy,   men 
sentenced  to   death   or   deportation  calmly  remaining 
where  they  are  and  going  up  and  down  in  their  city  quite 
unconcerned,  and  swaggering  about  like  heroes,  not  a 
soul  seeing  or  caring?    Mark,   too,    the    democracy's 
charitableness   and  sublime   indifference   to   trifles:    it 
contemptuously  tramples  underfoot  all  our  high  educa- 
tional principles,  and  cares  not  a  jot  about  a  politician's 
previous  record,  but  accepts  his  bare  assertion  of  devotion 
to  the  People  as  a  passport  to  its  respect.     These  and 
similar  traits  belong  to  a  democracy,  which  is  quite 
delightfully  full  of  lawlessness  and  inconsistency  and 
distributes  equality  alike  to  the  equal  and  the  unequal, 
with  undiscriminating  impartiality. 

That  all  this  is  so,  said  he,  is  notorious." 

Is  the  picture  over-coloured,  or  does  our  modern 
Democracy  recognize  the  likeness  ? 

II.     The  Go-as-you-please  Indkidml* 

**  Lying  and  hypocritical  arguments  capture  the 
fortress  of  the  young  man's  soul,  lock  the  gates  and  turn 
a  deaf  ear  to  remonstrance  or  advice.      The  victory  is 

♦Plato,  "Republic,"  561. 


5|i 


294 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


theirs.  Modesty  they  dub  silliness,  and  drive  it  out 
into  ignominious  exile ;  self-control  they  label  unmanli- 
ness,  and  expel  it  without  ceremony ;  moderation  and 
reasonable  expenditure  they  represent  as  want  of 
manners  and  education,  and  thrust  out  of  sight  with 
the  aid  of  a  host  of  perfectly  unprofitable  desires.  And 
so  he  lives  from  day  to  day  indulging  the  passing  whim 
of  the  moment:  to-day  he  is  drowsy  with  wine  and 
music,  to-morrow  he  will  turn  teetotaller  and  starve 
himself  to  grow  thin;  one  day  he  is  all  for  exercise, 
another  he  is  all  laziness  and  apathy,  and  yet  another 
he  buries  himself  in  his  books.  And  often  he  takes  to 
politics  and  jumps  up  and  says  and  does  whatever  comes 
into  his  head ;  and  if  he  makes  some  soldier  his  hero, 
he  must  needs  go  a-soldiering,  and  if  a  business  man,  off 
go  his  thoughts  to  business.  There  is  no  law  or  order  in 
his  life  ;  but,  calling  this  mode  of  living  delightful  and 
free  and  happy,  he  never  departs  from  it.'* 

Acute  and  masterly  character-drawing. 

And  so  a  reluctant  farewell  to  Parnassus  and  the 
great  company  of  spirits,  grave  or  gay,  who  dwell  upon 
Greek  its  summit  for  evermore  with  Apollo  and  the 

uterature.  Muses  nine.  One  or  two  things  must  impress 
themselves  on  all  who  approach  the  grand  literature  of 
Greece.  There  is  first  its  superlative  excellence.  If 
you  say  to  me  that,  of  course,  it  is  all  good,  because 
only  the  good  in  it  has  survived,  I  reply.  True,  only  the 
good  has  survived,  but  not  all  the  good  nor  always  the 
best.  Some  of  the  plays  we  have  won  only  second  or 
third  prizes,  some  none  at  all.  What  must  those  have 
been  which  wrested  the  crown  from  them !  High 
excellence  belonged  to  the  beaten,  even  to  the  third  and 
fourth  rank. 

Then  there  is  the  wide  diffusion  of  Greek  literature. 


A  GOLDEN  AGE 


295 


It  is  quite  a  mistake  to  suppose  that  Athens  enjoyed  a 
monopoly,  and  that  by  **  Greek  "  we  mean  *'  Athenian" 
literature.  Athens  no  doubt  exercised  a  great  attrac- 
tion :  it  was  a  home  of  art  and  learning,  a  centre,  like 
London  or  Paris.  But  the  writers,  of  prose  or  poetry, 
came  from  all  parts  of  the  Hellenic  world,  from  the 
rising  and  the  setting  sun.  From  Lesbos  to  Sicily  the 
tree  grew  and  flourished,  fragrant  with  the  fairest 
blossom  and  laden  with  fruit  of  exquisite  and  subtle 
flavour. 

The  love  of  literature  not  only  spread  wide  but  sank 
deep.     At   the   present   day  how  many  of  us  care  for 
good    poetry,    or    even    good    prose  ?     The  p^  ^^^ 
**  cultured"  class  is  an  infinitely  small  frac-  among  all 
tion  of  the  community.    At  Athens  and  other  ^^*^^®^- 
places  all  classes  thronged  to  the  theatre,  not  to  see 
(for  the  scenery  was  of  the  simplest,  and  the  producer  of 
a  play  was  less  important  in  those  days  than  its  author), 
but  to  hear.     They  went  in  their  thousands — the  theatre 
of  Athens  accommodated  close  on  thirty  thousand,  and 
there  were  others  as  large  at  Syracuse  and  Epidaurus 
and  elsewhere.     Nowadays,  with  our  enormously  larger 
population,   only  a  football  match  will   attract  such 
numbers. 

And  the  Greek's  love  of  literature  was  genuine.  It 
was  part  of  his  nature.  It  was  rooted  in  his  soul  and 
bore  good  fruit.  For  jealous  as  he  was,  rest-  power  of 
less,  fickle,  pugnacious,  cunning,  vindictive,  voetrj. 
he  was  an  artist  with  it  all,  and  his  love  of  good  art 
was  above  all  his  other  characteristics.  Had  anybody 
ever  better  cause  to  hate  the  Athenians  than  the 
Syracusans  after  that  long  and  harassing  siege  ?  Their 
natural  impulse,  when  relief  at  last  came  and  the  peril 
was  over,  was  to  wreak  their  vengeance  on  those  of  the 
invaders  who  fell  into  their  hands,  to  kill  and  torture 


1 1 


296 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


them.  But  the  victors  were  Greeks  no  less  than  the  van- 
quished, and  because  they  were  Greeks,  poetry  exercised 
over  them  a  spell  which  would  not  be  denied.  Any  of 
the  unhappy  Athenians  who  could  recite  passages,  either 
choruses  or  speeches,  from  the  plays  of  Euripides,  were 
immediately  treated  with  the  kindest  consideration. 
Their  wounds  were  attended  to,  and,  though  prisoners 
of  war  and  slaves,  they  were  given  their  liberty  and 
allowed  to  return  home,  as  a  reward  for  the  delight  they 
had  afforded  their  captors  by  their  recitations.  Many 
such,  we  are  told,  returning  to  Athens,  went  first  to 
visit  the  aged  poet,  to  thank  him  and  his  genius  for  the 
blessing  of  life  and  liberty.  It  may  be  questioned  how 
many  of  us,  after  a  desperate  and  exasperating  struggle 
for  existence,  would  be  inclined  to  give  a  free  pardon  to 
any  of  our  prisoners  who  could  give  us  recitations  out 
of  Shakespeare  1 

Perhaps  enough  has  been  quoted  to  lure  the  reader 
further,   to   suggest   a   faint   picture  of  that   fragrant 

garden  of  flowers,  the   literature  of  Greece. 

Translations,  at  the  best,  can  never  do  more 
than  give  a  reflection  of  the  original.  Happy  those 
who  look  into  the  mirror ;  they  can  at  any  rate  feel 
some  of  the  fascination  of  the  scene ;  but  happier  those 
who  passing  through  the  gate  of  the  garden  walk  up 
and  down  its  paths  of  pleasantness,  and  drink  deep  the 
fragrance  streaming  from  its  living  blossoms. 


Conclusion. 


CHAPTER  XVII 

ALEXANDER   (355-323    B.C.) 

When  that  this  body  did  contain  a  spirit, 
A  kingdom  for  it  was  too  small  a  bound. 

Shakespeare. 

The  East  led  by  Persia  under  Darius  and  again  under 
Xerxes   had   attempted  the  conquest  of  the  West  and 
failed.     Greece  had  met  the  enemy  in  the 
gate  and  Europe  was  saved.     Now  the  parts   fouX-' 
were  to   be  reversed.     Europe    became  the    i^iyasion  of 
aggressor  and  invaded  Asia,  and  the  East  lay   ^"*' 
prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  West.    Pheidias  had  taken 
the   marble  the   Persians   brought  to   Marathon    and 
created  a  Nemesis  to  commemorate  their  defeat.    But 
this  time  Nemesis  came  and  sought  them  out,  in  flesh 
and  blood  and  fire  and   steel.    Alexander  came  as  an 
avenger. 

The  Peloponnesian  War  has  unavoidably  engaged  a 
great  deal   of  our  attention,  but  the  reader  of  former 
chapters  does  not  need  by  this   time   to   be   Th^  world 
reminded  that,  though  the  struggle  between    one. 
Athens  and  Sparta  might  appear  to  those  rival  towns 
the  most  important  and  vital  thing  on  earth,  there  were 
other  people  in  the  world  living  their  lives  and  going 
about  their  business,  to  them  equally  interesting,  and 
moreover  that  they  were  not  in  separate   sound-proof 
and  fire-proof  compartments,  knowing  nothing  of  each 
other.      There   was   free    circulation  and  intercourse, 

297 


i  -fl 


298 


THE   ANCIENT   WORLD 


news  did  travel,  and  a  conflagration  in  one  place  might 
spread  to  another.  It  is  sometimes  difiQcult  to  realize 
this  fact  about  very  early  times,  but  that  is  because 
our  materials  are  so  scanty.  For  the  period  which  we 
have  now  reached  the  data  are  quite  abundant  and 
trustworthy,  and  the  fact  is  clear. 

Before  the  Persian  Wars  began,  Cyrus  and  after  him 
Cambyses  and  Darius  had  bound  together  under  one 
Persia  in  common  sway  all  the  East  from  the  Dardanelles 
^SJVt.  and  Egypt  to  the  Indus.     Darius  cut  a  canal 

from  the  Nile  to  the  Bed  Sea  and  was  not  unpopular  in 
Egypt,  but  the  year  before  his  death  the  province 
revolted  (486).  Two  years  later  the  revolt  was  crushed 
by  Xerxes,  who  exchanged  his  father's  whips  for 
scorpions. 

Beturning  from  his  disastrous  expedition  to  Greece, 
Xerxes  found  his  empire  in  trouble.  The  great  defeat 
Egyptian  shook  his  throne  severely.  The  double  victory 
risings.  of  the  Athenian  Cimon  at  the  Eurymedon 
(466)  dealt  it  a  fresh  blow,  and  in  the  following  year  he 
was  murdered  by  the  captain  of  his  body-guard  and 
succeeded  by  his  youngest  son  Artaxerxes  I.,  surnamed 
"Long-hand  "  (465-424).  Again  Egypt  revolted  (460), 
this  time  under  Inaros,  who  asked  and  obtained  help 
from  Athens.  But  the  revolt  was  crushed  like  its 
predecessor,  the  Athenian  force  was  annihilated  (455), 
and  the  rebel  chief  Inaros  crucified.  Yet  Amyrtaeus 
(iVmon-rut)  maintained  his  independence  in  the  swamps 
and  made  terms  with  Persia. 

Close  by  and  on  the  direct  road  from  Persia  to  Egypt, 
Jerusalem  was  rising  again  from  its  ashes,  under  the 
Egypt  and  Supervision  of  Ezra  (458)  and  Nehemiah  (445). 
Athens.  \Ye  know  from  the  biblical  account  that  the 
Persian  Empire  was  in  a  state  of  great  disorder,  being 
managed,  or  mismanaged,  by  plots  and  counterplots. 


ALEXANDER 


299 


The  Persian  Zopyrus,  the  son  of  the  conqueror  of  Inaros, 
actually  went  for  refuge  to  Athens  and  served  on  at 
least  one  Athenian  expedition;  and,  another  proof 
of  international  intercourse  and  unity,  in  445  the 
Egyptian  prince  Psammetichus  sent  a  large  gift  of  corn 
to  Athens. 

The  Peloponnesian  War  did  not  fail  to  interest 
Persia.  Here  were  her  worst  enemies  quarrelling 
among  themselves  :  could  not  something  be  .,  ^he  Ten 
done  to  help  them  weaken  each  other  by  pro-  Thousand." 
longing  their  internecine  conflict  ?  The  practical  answer 
we  saw  in  the  closing  years  of  the  war,  when  Sparta 
wore  down  her  rival,  thanks  mainly  to  Persian  gold. 
When  the  young  Cyrus,  her  generous  paymaster,  after- 
wards became  a  pretender  for  the  throne  of  Persia, 
Sparta  lent  him  the  assistance  of  a  well-trained  Greek 
army,  which  fo^ight  manfully  at  Cunaxa,  where  Cyrus 
fell,  and  whose  march  back  to  the  Black  Sea,  under 
circumstances  of  great  hardship  and  peril,  is  for  ever 
famous  as  the  "  Betreat  of  the  Ten  Thousand  "  (401). 

After  the  death  of  Artaxerxes  L  (424),  Persia  was 
unlucky  in  having  a  succession  of  weak  and  incapable 
rulers  in  Xerxes  IL,  Darius  II.  and  Artaxerxes  jjecay  of 
II.  (Mnemon).  The  empire  was  in  a  state  of  Persia, 
rapid  decay.  Caria  shook  itself  free  under  Mausolus 
(377-353),  and  the  Pharaohs  Tachos  and  Nectanebus  of 
the  Thirtieth  Dynasty  asserted  their  independence  in 
Egypt  (360).  The  end  seemed  very  near,  when,  as 
often  happens,  the  empire  made  one  great  effort  to 
recover  itself  and  stand  still  or  even  climb  up  again  on 
the  steep  slope.  Artaxerxes  III.  for  a  time  restored 
order  and  good  government  and  brought  back  the 
frontier  provinces,  especially  Phoenicia  and  Egypt  (314), 
into  the  fold.  He  taught  with  a  rod  and  applied  it  with 
a  heavy  hand.     It  was  perhaps  during  this  re-conquest 


i-.jgA^fz.,^tf^i^tf,it ,  5=s»-Wi^--waB*'afehJWta9*KeTfeS*S|^ 


■nawMMii 


300 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


ALEXANDER 


301 


that  HoloiDhernes  was  commissioned  to  "pacify  '*  Judaea 
and  was  murdered  by  Judith. 

Whether  it  be  true  or  no  that  Philip  of  Macedon 
sent  an  embassy  to  Artaxerxes  IIL,  the  Persian  king 
Else  of  '^as  getting  alarmed  at  the  Macedonian 
Macedonia,  activity  in  the  Hellespont  (Dardanelles)  and 
was  watching  him  suspiciously.  But  he  died  before  the 
battle  of  Chaeronea  (338),  and  Persia's  last  chance  was 
gone. 

As  the  reader  knows,  the  incurable  lack  of  cohesion 
in  Greece — 

Wretched  and  foolisli  jealousy, 

....     that  poor  desire 

That  others  should  not  warm  them  at  my  fire.* 

had  ruined  in  turn  the  Athenian,  Spartan  and 
Chaeronea :  Theban  supremacies.  Jealousy  too  laid 
Philip  Greece  prostrate   at  the  feet    of  Philip    of 

master  of 

Greece,  Macedon.     Firstly,  he  was  allowed  to  destroy 

338  B.C.  the  Olynthian  confederacy  in  Thrace,  which 
might  if  supported  have  served  as  a  bulwark  against  him. 
Secondly,  he  was  invited  first  by  the  Thebans,  those  old 
mischief-makers,  and  later  by  the  Amphictyonic  Council 
itself,  to  interfere  in  internal  disputes,  called  '*  Sacred 
Wars,"  because  they  were  concerned  with  the  occupation 
of  sacred  land  belonging  to  the  temple  of  Delphi.  And 
then,  when  the  oft-repeated  warnings  of  x\thens  were  at 
last  listened  to,  it  was  too  late.  Thebes  joined  her  at 
the  last  moment,  but  both  together  were  completely  and 
finally  crushed  at  Chaeronea  (338). 

PhiUp  was  master  of  Greece  and  would  now  fulfil  his 
Death  of  ^i^^'s  ambition,  an  invasion  of  Persia.  But, 
Philip.  in   the   midst   of  his   preparations,   he   was 

murdered  (336),  and  his  place  taken  by  his  young  son 
Alexander,  then  barely  twenty  years  old. 

*  Ben  Jonsou. 


Away  in  the  West,  the  Romans  had  not  as  yet  done 
any  *' showy"  piece  of  work.  But  the  work  was  none 
the  less  solid.  Quietly  and  unobtrusively,  Rome  rises 
they  were  yet  training  to  become  masters  of  to  thehead- 
the  world.  In  454,  at  the  time  when  Athens  '^^^^^ 
under  Pericles  was  making  her  confederacy  338  B.C. 
into  an  empire,  ambassadors  arrived  in  Athens  from 
Rome  to  study  the  Athenian  constitution  and  law  and 
report  to  their  countrymen.  The  Romans  thus 
obtained  a  written  code  (451).*  They  went  through  the 
experience  of  having  their  city  captured  and  sacked  by 
the  Gauls  (390),  which  taught  them  valuable  military 
and  social  lessons.  They  learnt  the  value  of  unity,  and  by 
the  Licinian  Laws  (367),wiped  out  the  distinction  between 
Patricians  and  Plebeians.  They  fought  with  success 
against  warlike  neighbours,  and  had  even  a  sufficient 
claim  on  the  respect  of  the  powerful  city  of  Carthage  to 
be  able  to  make  a  treaty  with  it  on  equal  terms  (348). 
Lastly,  in  the  very  year  of  the  battle  of  Chaeronea 
(338),  when  Philip  IL  of  Macedon  became  master  of 
Greece,  Rome  crushed  the  last  resistance  of  the  Latins, 
dissolved  their  League,  and  became  the  sole  mistress  of 
Latium. 

And  what  of  Carthage  ?    Had  her  repulse  at  Himera 
on  the   day   of   Salamis  (480)  been  final?    After  the 
Athenian    disaster   at    Syracuse    (413),    the 
government  of  that  city  assumed  an  extreme    ^^fli^ii  . 
form  of  democracy.     But  the  foreign  peril,    Dionysius  * 
in  the  shape  of  Carthaginian  invasions,  and   ^^®  ^^^^''• 
the   death   of  Hermocrates,   the   hero   of  the   defence 
against  the  Athenians,  had  brought  about  the  downfall 
of  that  government.     In  days  of  national  danger  in  the 
face  of  an   armed   foe,    salvation   comes   not   from   a 
debating  society,  but  from   the  one  strong  man  who 

♦  See  Chapter  XII.,  "  The  Lawgivers." 


302 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


li 


Nl 


will  take  the  whole  responsibility  and  act  promptly. 
Themistocles  saved  Greece  at  Salamis;  Athens  was  beaten 
by  Sparta  because  she  had  no  strong  man  of  command- 
ing pre-eminence,  while  Sparta  had  Lysander.  And  now 
(405)  Syracuse  and  Sicily  were  saved  by  Hermocrates' 
son,  Dionysius  the  Elder.  Like  our  own  Clive,  he  began 
life  as  a  clerk  at  a  desk,  and,  like  him,  showed  that  his 
fingers  were  more  at  home  with  a  sword  than  a  pen. 
He  was  the  strong  man  of  action  the  times  needed,  and 
at  the  early  age  of  twenty-five  he  was  appointed  Sole 
General  of  Syracuse,  of  which  he  quickly  made  himself 
Tyrant.  He  was  successful  in  all  his  enterprises, 
making  Syracuse  almost  impregnable,  and  annexing 
Southern  Italy,  and  forcing  terms  on  the  Carthaginians 
which  kept  them  well  in  check  during  the  whole  of  his 
reign  of  thirty-eight  years  (405-367). 

He  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Dionysius  the 
Younger  (3G7-343),  a  very  different  and  very  inferior 
Timoieon  of  character,  who,  after  withdrawing  and  again 
Corinth.  returning  to  power,  finally  abdicated  under 
pressure  from  that  remarkable  genius,  Timoieon  of 
Corinth,  who,  refusing  autocratic  power  for  himself,  put 
down  the  last  remaining  Tyrants  in  Sicily  and  won  an 
astonishing  victory  over  tremendously  superior  numbers 
of  Carthaginians  at  the  river  Crimissus  (339).  In  the 
following  year  they  were  forced  to  make  terms, 
accepting  the  river  Halycus  as  the  frontier  between 
themselves  and  the  Sicilian  Greeks  (338). 

Thus  the  same  year,  338,  saw  Philip  of  Macedon 
undisputed  master  of  Greece  on  the  field  of  Chaeronea, 
The  year  Rome  mistress  of  Latium  and  the  dominant 
838  B.C.  power  in  central  Italy  by  the  dissolution  of 
the  Latin  League,  and  Carthage  checked  by  Greeks  in 
her  encroachments  in  Sicily,  while  the  Persian  Empire 
had  just  lately  been  re-united  and  restored  by  a  strong 


"np-i 


ALEXANDER 


303 


ruler  (Artaxerxes  IH.)  to  some  likeness  of  its  former 
strength  and  prosperity. 

Such  was  the  stage  and  such  were  some  of  the  actors 
among  whom  Alexander  now  stepped  to  play  out  his  part. 
He  was  the  son  of  Philip  II.  and  Olympias, 
the  daughter  of  Neoptolemus,  King  of  Epirus,    K^er  • 
who     traced    his    descent    from    the    great   relations 
Achilles,  while  the  royal  house  of  Macedonia   "^'^  ^'*^^* 
itself  claimed  to  be  a  branch  of  the  Heracleidae.*    His 
mother's  brother,  Alexander  of  Epirus,  was  invited  in 
332  B.C.,  by  the  people  of  Tarentum  in  Italy  to  come  over 
and  save  them  from  the  Lucanians  and  Samnites,  and 
after  beatnig  these  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Paestum  he 
made  a  treaty  with  the  Romans— another  early  link 
between  Rome  and   Greece.    By  that  time  Alexander 
was  already  m  the  East  and  besieging  Tyre ;  otherwise, 
had  Philip  been   alive  and  he  living  in  his  father's 
house,  his  restless  spirit  might  very  possibly  have  led 
him  to  accompany  his  uncle  to  Italy,  and  his  conquering 
ardour  been  diverted  from  East  to  West  and  the  whole 
course  of  history  altered. 

Alexander  was  born  in  356  b.c,  the  same  night  that 
the  lunatic  Herostratus,  for  notoriety's  sake,  burnt 
down  the  great  temple  of  Artemis  at  Ephesus.  joyhood  of 
The  story  was  that  one  day  Philip  received  Alexander, 
three  messages  from  widely  different  quarters  :  one  was 
that  his  general  Parmenio  had  won  a  great  victory  in 
Illyria,  another  that  his  horse  had  won  the  first  prize  at 
Olympia,  the  -  Derby  "  of  those  days,  and  the  third 
announced  the  birth  of  his  son.  Alexander  soon  showed 
signs  of  remarkable  powers,  mental  and  physical. 
While  yet  a  mere  boy  he  received  in  his  father's  absence 
some  Persian  ambassadors,  who  were  astonished  at  his 
conversation,  and  thought  Philip's  celebrated  shrewdness 

*  See  Chapter  IX.  p.  148. 


i  m 


1^ 


i 


304 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


was  nothing  in  comparison  with  his  son's.     On  another 

Bucephalus  ^^^^^^^^  ^^^^  ^^"^S  ^as  asked  to  buy  a  horse, 
but  was  on  the  point  of  refusing  to  do  so,  as 
the  animal  on  being  tried  seemed  so  unmanageable  and 
vicious,  when  young  Alexander,  who  was  looking  on, 
begged  to  be  allowed  to  try  his  hand.  His  sharp  eyes 
had  observed  that  the  horse  was  frightened  at  his  own 
shadow.  He  therefore  led  him  straight  towards  the  sun, 
stroking  him  to  calm  him,  then  lightly  leapt  on  his  back 
and  put  him  to  a  full  gallop.  He  brought  him  back 
tired  and  obedient,  and  was  given  the  horse,  who  became 
famous  as  his  favourite  charger  Bucephalus. 

He  had  for  his  tutor,  among  others,  the  illustrious 
philosopher  Aristotle,  who  seems  to  have  instilled  into 
His  love  of  ^^i^  9.  keen  love  of  learning.  **  For  my  own 
learning.  part,"  wrote  the  conqueror  from  Asia,  **  I  had 
rather  surpass  the  rest  of  mankind  in  learning  than  in 
power."  He  looked  upon  the  "Iliad"  as  a  portable 
treasure  of  military  knowledge,  and  carried  about  with 
him  a  copy  corrected  by  Aristotle,  which  he  kept  in  a  rich 
casket  taken  from  the  spoils  of  Darius.  **  Darius,"  said 
he,  "  kept  ointments  in  this :  I  will  turn  it  to  worthier 
use."  While  in  Asia,  busy  conquering  and  organizing,  he 
wrote  home  for  a  supply  of  books,  and  was  sent  most  of 
the  plays  of  Aeschylus,  Sophocles  and  Euripides,  besides 
other  works  in  prose  and  verse. 

He  helped  his   father  Philip  to  win  the  battle   of 

Chaeronea  (338),  commanding  the  wing  opposed  to  the 

Thebabs  and  being  the  first  to   break  their 

'*  Sacred  Band."     Two  years  later  his  father 

was  dead,  murdered  very  likely  at  the  queen's 

instigation,  and  his   campaigning   began   in 

His  whole  life  from  that  moment  was  spent 

in  harness.     The  young  king  was  surrounded  by  enemies 

on  every  side.    His  marvellous  decision  and  rapidity 


Commander 
in-chief  of 
all  Greek 
forces. 

earnest. 


p'^^?«ssew»*te-*sat«e^js^^-ti«ei!t#«-'^«^-»^^ 


ALEXANDEK  305 

extricated  Lim  from  every  danger.  A  blow  here  and  a 
blow  there  and  all  was  submission  again.  At  Corinth 
he  was  elected  commander-in-chief  of  all  the  Greeks  for 
the  exijedition  against  Persia. 

Thereupon  he  marched  north  and  even  crossed  the 
Danube,  making  a  demonstration  to  secure  his  northern 
frontiers.  But  news  came  that  Thebes  was  „„,  ,. 
iQ  revolt.  Quick  as  thought  he  turned  back.  otrZlT 
While  the  Thebans  were  fondly  believing  that  he  had 
been  killed  by  the  northern  savages,  he  suddenly 
appeared  before  their  walls.  The  city  was  stormed 
and  treated  with  exemplary  severity.  Only  the  citadel 
and  house  of  the  poet  Pindar  were  left  standing: 

The  great  Emathian  conqueror  bid  spare 

The  house  of  Pindarus,  when  temple  and  tower 

Went  to  the  ground.* 

All  the  inhabitants  were  sold  into  slavery,  except 
1  indar  s  descendants  and  persons  privately  connected 
with  the  conqueror's  family.  Thus  even  in  the  midst 
of  warlike  fury  and  resentment,  the  young  soldier  still 
bowed  to  the  sacredness  of  literature. 

Greece   was   cowed  and  not  likely  to  give  further 
trouble,  and  Alexander  crossed  for  the  first  and  last 
time— he  never  saw  Greece  again— into  Asia 
on  his  great  invasion  of  Persia  (334).    His   fro^f " 
army  numbered  not  more  than  30  000  foot   '""'  •*"»• 
and  5000  horse.  12,000  foot  only  bsing  Macedonians. 
Unce  more  he  was  to  prove  to  the  world,  as  has  so  often 
been  shown  both  before  and  since,  that  victory  does  not 
always  rest  with  the   big  battalions.     Xenopbon  and 
his  Ten  Thousand  Greeks,  after  the  disaster  of  Cunaxa 
had  made  their  way  home  successfully  through  a  vast 
unknown  and  hostile  couatry  and  in  defiance  of  over- 
whelming  odds.    Alexander  felt  that  thirty  odd  thousand 

•  Milton. 


'11 
■  i- 


1  ; 
'I 


imtmmmm 


30G 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


well-discipliueil  Greeks  woukl  be  more  than  a  match  for 
ten  times  their  number  of  Asiatics. 

Darius  ILL  (Codomannus)  was  weak  and  incompetent, 
and  Memnon,  the  Rhodian  Greek,  who  was  his  best 
Darius  and  general,  died  in  the  second  year  of  the  war. 
Memnon.  Even  while  he  lived  his  advice  was  rejected 
— Alexander  easily  won  the  first  battle  on  the 
banks  of  the  Granicus — and  after  his  death,  Persia 
never  had  a  chance.  In  this  first  engagement  Alex- 
ander, wearing  a  helmet  distinguished  by  two  white 
plumes,  was  set  upon  furiously  and  was  within  an  ace 
of  losing  his  life,  being  just  saved  in  the  very  nick  of 
time  by  his  friend  Clitus.  But  the  warning  was  wasted  : 
he  was  not  the  man  to  shirk  risks. 

It  must  not  be  supposed  that  Alexander's  un- 
deniable impetuosity  and  reckless  courage  made  him 
Alexander's  incapable  of  Calm  reflection  and  reasoned 
strategy.  method.  His  great  ambition  was  to  conquer 
the  Persian  Empire,  but  he  was  a  very  different  person 
from  the  younger  Cyrus.  Cyrus  made  an  impassioned 
attack  straight  at  the  heart  of  the  empire,  and,  in  battle, 
straight  at  the  heart  of  the  enemy's  forces,  by  headlong 
folly  losing  everything,  battle,  enterprise  and  life,  at 
one  blow.  But  Alexander  let  reason  attend  on  ambition. 
He  sat  down  and  quietly  thought  out  his  plan  of 
campaign,  and  followed  it  out  methodically  in  spite  of 
all  temptations  to  take  **  short-cuts." 

Memnon's  idea  had  been— and  he  was  by  far  the  best 
commander  on  the  Persian  side— not  to  offer  direct 
opposition  to  Alexander  by  land,  but  to  get 
hisbaseand  behind  him  by  means  of  the  sea-power  at 
oommuni-  Persia's  disposal  and  to  strike  straight  at  his 
base  in  Macedonia,  which  move  would  compel 
his  return.  As  the  reader  knows,  Memnon's  plan  was 
overruled;   the  Persians  fought  at  the  river  Granicus 


fVr«-*s^s:;.;,j,_i^  ^'$-^^^^ 


' 


ALEXANDER 


307 


and  were  beaten ;  and  soon  after  Memnon  lost  his  life 
at  Mytilene.     But  though  the  man  was  dead,  the  plan 
might  yet  be  revived  and  acted  upon.     A  man  is  often 
thought  more  of  dead  than  alive,  as  Alexander  knew. 
Accordingly,  Alexander  would  take  no  risks.     In  order 
to  secure  his  base  and  his  communications  and  to  pre- 
clude the  possibility  of  a  Persian  fleet  making  a  diversion 
in  Greek  waters,  he  must  deprive  Persia  of  the  sources 
from  which  such  a  fleet  could  be  drawn.     That  meant 
the   annexation   of  the   coasts   of  Asia  Minor,   Syria 
Phoenicia  and  Egypt-a  roundabout  way  to  the  Persian 
capital,  no  doubt,  but  a  sure  one. 

This  plan  of  campaign  Alexander  strictly  followed 
Advancing  from  the  Granicus,  which  is  in  the  north- 
west   corner  of  Asia  Minor,  he  received  the 
submission    of  -  Sardis,    Ephesus,     Tralles,    ts^^'^Vnl" 
Magnesia,  Smyrna,  and  other  Greek  cities,  in   ^«^<^  ^^ 
all  of  which  he  established  democracies,  and   ^*"'''' 
stormed    Miletus  and  Halicarnassus.    After  a  visit  to 
Gordium,  where  he  cut  the  famous  '*Gordian   knot" 
and,  what  was  less  dramatic  but  more  practically  useful, 
received  reinforcements  from  Greece,  he  went  south  to 
Tarsus,  marching  through  the  pass  of  the  Cilician  Gates 
unopposed.     At  Tarsus  he  nearly  lost  his  life  through  a 
chill  contracted  by  plunging  when  heated  into  the  cold 
waters  of  the  river  Cydnus.     But  as  soon  as  he  was 
recovered,    he  advanced  to  Issus,  a  town  in  the  angle 
formed   by  the  coasts  of  Asia  Minor   and  Syria,  and 
coutmued  his  march  southwards.     He  had  not  gone  far 
when  he  heard  that  Darius  was  behind  him,  having 
crossed  Mount  Amanus  and  dropped  down  to  Issus. 
Ihat  foolish  and  incompetent  leader,  instead  of  barring 
Alexander's  passage  in  a  wide  plain  where  numbers 
would  tell,  had  thrown  away  all  the  advanta^re  of  his 
immense  army  of  half  a   million  men  by  descending. 


308 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Alex- 
ander's 


into  the  confiaed  seaside  plain  of  Issus  in  the  vain  hope 
of  catchiag  Alexander  still  detained  there  by  illness. 
He  had  arrived  too  late,  but  Alexander,  so  far  from 
congratulating  himself  on  having  stolen  a  march,  could 
wish  for  nothing  better  than  to  meet  his  enemy  in  such 
a  position,  and  quickly  doubled  back.  His  victory  was 
decisive.  The  Persians  were  slaughtered  like  sheep, 
losing  110,000,  while  the  Greek  loss  was  under  one 
thousand.  Darius  himself  fled,  leaving  his  wife  Statira, 
his  mother,  sister,  and  daughters  in  the  conqueror's 
power  (333). 

Alexander  treated  the  royal  ladies  with  the  utmost 
consideration,  taking  care  to  assure  them  immediately 
after  the  battle  that  Darius  had  not  besn 
killed,  and  that  they  had  nothing  to  fear 
courtesy.  ^^^^  himself  as  *'  his  dispute  with  Darius 
was  solely  for  empire."  It  was  a  Persian  who  told 
Darius  that  Alexander  was  "  as  mild  in  victory  as  he 
was  terrible  in  battle."  What  a  magnificent  testi- 
monial to  a  youthful  conqueror  ! 

Instead  of  pursuing  Darius,  Alexander  dismissed 
him  from  his  mind  and  adhoi-ed  to  his  plan. 
Fan  of  Damascus  was  captured  with  immense  spoil, 
Tyre  and  and  all  Phoenicia  and  Syria  submitted  except 
Giza.  rji^^g  ^^^  Gaza.     Tyre,  after  an  eight  months' 

siege,  during  which  Alexander  by  superhuman  efforts 
turned  the  island  into  a  peninsula,  was  stormed  with 
fearful  slaughter,  and  Gaza  likewise  fell  after  a  resist- 
ance of  two  months  (332).  At  the  close  of  the  siege  of 
Tyre,  the  court  soothsayer,  presumably  forgetting  the 
date,  declared  at  a  sacrifice  that  Tyre  would  fall  that 
month.  The  audience  laughed,  saying  it  was  already 
the  last  day  of  the  month,  and  the  soothsayer  was  dis- 
concerted, but  Alexander  saved  the  situation  by  promptly 
ordering  that  that  day  should  b3  called  the  28th,  and 


ALEXANDER 


309 


then  by  a  terrific  onslaught  storming  the  place  on 
that  very  day.  He  sent  valuable  spoil  home  to  his 
mother  and  step-mother,  and  did  not  forget  his  old 
tutor. 

There  now  remained  Egypt,  which,  having  always 
resented  the  Persian  domination,  hailed  Alexander  as  a 
Iriend  and  deliverer.     The  conqueror  founded   ^    . 
Alexandria,  which    soon    became    the  com-   offeT 
mercial  capital  of  the  East,   and  journeyed   ^^''^'' 
into  the  desert  to  consult  the  oracle  of  Zeus  Ammon. 
About  this  time  Darius  sent  an  offer  of  terms,  includincr 
all  his  dominions  west  of  the  Euphrates  and  the  hand 
of  his  daughter.     "  I  would  accept,  if  I  were  Alexander," 
said  one   of  his  generals,  Parmenio.     '^  So  would  I  if 
I  were  Parmenio,"  replied  Alexander.    But  he  was  not, 
and  the  war  pursued  its  course, 

Alexander  had  now  secured  his  rear  and  was  ready 
to  advance  to  his  real  goal.     He  had  severed  the  roots 
and   would   now  proceed  to   bring   the   tree 
down.     He  marched  north  through  Phoenicia,    e^nd  onhe 
crossed  theEuphrates  at  the  fordof  Thapsacus,    Persian 
passed  through  Mesopotamia  and  crossed  the    ^'^^^''^' 
Tigris.     Fifty  miles  west  of  Arbela  he   found  Darius 
waiting  for  him  in  an  immense  plain  with  an  immense 
army.      Once  more  the  smaller  but  better-trained  and 
better-led  battalions  won.     The    spiritless   king    a^ain 
turned  and  fled,  the  Persians  suffered  a  bloody  defeat 
and  the  empire  was  lost  (331).     It  is  interesting  to  note' 
that  Alexander  sent  some  of  the  spoil  on  this  occasion 
to  the   city  of  Croton  in  Italy,  in  acknowledgment  of 
the  patriotism  of  their  countryman,  the  athlete  Phayllus 
who  was  the  only  Greek  from  Italy  who  helped  to  beat 
the  Persians  at  Salamis  (480). 

Darius  fled  eastwards,  hoping  fo  reach  Bactria,  at 
the  foot  of  the  Hindu  Kush.     Once   more  Alexander 


If.? J 


Ht  ,«*"B«?:>,-5«i*f  ta^   ™~  ^i^^^^  ^  -v-^  :  '■V«*^'iiw-i^gig^%'S^^#^fjessi'ip»^^ 


810 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


refrained  from  pressing  the  pursuit  to  a  finish.  He 
PersepoUs  proceeded  methodically  to  Babylon,  thence 
burnt.  ^Q  Susa,  and  thence  to  Persepolis,  where  he 

got  possession  of  the  treasures  of  the  Kings  of  Persia. 
Either  by  accident,  or,  as  some  have  thought,  from  a 
desire  on  Alexander's  part  to  avenge  the  burning  of 
Greek  temples  and  the  mutilation  of  Greek  prisoners, 
Persepolis  was  burnt  to  the  ground. 

Revenge,  revenge  !  Timotheua  cries, 

See  the  Furies  arise  I 

See  the  snakes  that  they  rear 

How  they  hiss  in  their  hair. 

And  the  sparkles  that  flash  from  their  eyes  I 

Behold  a  ghastly  band. 

Each  a  torch  in  his  hand  ! 

Those  are  Grecian  ghosts,  that  in  battle  were  slain 

And  unburied  remain 

Inglorious  on  the  plain : 

Give  the  vengeance  due 

To  the  valiant  crew  1 

Behold  how  they  toss  their  torches  on  high, 

How  they  point  to  the  Persian  abodes 

And  glittering  temples  of  their  hostile  gods. 

— The  princes  applaud  with  a  furious  joy : 

And  the  King  seized  a  flambeau  with  zeal  to  destroy  ; 

Thais  led  the  way 

To  light  him  to  his  prey, 

And,  like  another  Helen,  fired  another  Troy !  * 

More  reinforcements  had  arrived  from  Greece,  and 
next  year  (330)  Alexander  set  out  northwards  to 
Bessus  Ecbatana,  where  Darius  was  living.     Darius 

murders  fled  for  his  life  into  the  mountains,  accom- 
*"^*'  panied  by  Bessus,  satrap  of  Bactria. 
Alexander,  hot  in  pursuit,  was  overtaking  him,  when 
Bessus  treacherously  murdered  his  sovereign  in  cold 
blood.  The  last  of  the  '*  Great  Kings  "  lay  by  the  road- 
side— 

♦  Dryden,  "  Alexander's  Feast." 


ALEXANDER  311 

Fallen,  fallen,  fallen,  fallen, 
Fallen  from  his  high  estate 
And  weltering  in  his  blood  ; 
Deserted,  at  his  utmost  need, 
By  those  his  former  bounty  fed ; 
On  the  bare  earth  exposed  he  lies 
With  not  a  friend  to  close  his  eyes.* 

The  murderer  then  assumed  the  title  of  king  in  his 
satrapy  of  Bactria,  little  knowing  whom  he  had  to  deal 
with  in  Alexander.  At  Ecbatana  Alexander  pardoned 
all  the  Persian  king's  Greek  mercenaries  and  took  them 
into  his  own  pay— a  useful  reinforcement— and  then  set 
out  for  Bactria,  in  pursuit  of  Bessus. 

Further  and  further  east  he  went.     In  the  following 
year  (329)  he  crossed  the  Hindu  Kush,  the  mountain 
range  at  the  sgurce  of  the  Indus,  between   ^j 
Kafiristan  and  Turkestan,  and  descended  into   entw^s^  ^^ 
Bactria,  the  modern  Bokhara,  crossing  the   ^^^*- 
river  Oxus.     Having  caught  Bessus,  he  went  on  north- 
wards as  far  as  the  river  Sir  Daria,  on  the  banks  of 
which  he  founded  another  Alexandria,  near  the  site  of 
the  modern  Khojent,  not  far  from  Samarkand,  then 
retraced  his  steps  across  the  Oxus  and  put  Bessus  to 
death  with  the  utmost  cruelty.   He  remained  the  follow- 
ing year  at  Samarkand,  subjugating  Turkestan.    In  327 
he^  captured  the  rocky  fortress  of  Oxyartes,  a  Bactrian 
chief,  and  married  his  beautiful  daughter  Eoxana— one 
more   romance   in    a    career   crowded    with   romantic 
incident,   and  immediately  crossed  the  Hindu  Kush 
southwards  to  invade  India — 

As  if  increase  of  appetite  had  grown 
By  what  it  fed  on. 

Meanwhile  the  conqueror's  character  had  deterior- 
ated.    It   seems  that   his   unbroken   success   and   the 

*  Dryden,  ibid.. 


I 


312 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


ever-busy  flattery  and  obsequiousness  of  his  *'  entour- 
The  dark  ^^^ "  ^^^^  inflated  his  sense  of  his  own 
side  of  the  importance  and  perfection.  Constant  contact 
picture.  ^^,j|.j^  Orientals  led  him  to  adopt  the  demeanour 
of  an  Oriental  potentate.  His  friends  openly  told  him 
that  nothing  that  he  did  could  be  wrong;  and  he 
actually  allowed  himself  to  be  addressed  and  even 
worshipped  as  a  god.  But  together  with  these  com- 
paratively  harmless  weaknesses  of  an  Asiatic  despot 
he  developed  more  fatal  vices.  He  gave  the  rein  to 
drunkenness  and  licentiousness,  and,  like  all  autocrats, 
became  suspicious  and  cruel.  These  faults  led  him.  as 
they  inevitably  must,  into  cowardly  crimes.  Suspicion 
of  a  plot  against  his  life  made  him  execute  his  best 
general  Parmenio  and  his  son  Philotas ;  in  a  drunken 
fury  he  with  his  own  hand  murdered  his  closest  friend 
Clitus;  and  insane  vanity  dictated  the  cold-blooded 
removal  of  the  philosopher  Callisthenes,  who  refused 
to  pay  his  young  master  divine  honours.  In  the 
solitudes  of  Afghanistan  and  Turkestan  he  had  indeed 
travelled  far,  physically  and  morally,  from  the  ennobling 
and  restraining  influence  of  his  old  tutor  Aristotle. 

But  as  yet  his  military  ardour  and  capacity  were 
unimpaired.  He  crossed  the  Indus,  not  far  from 
Limit  of  Peshawar,  and  the  Jelum,  conquered  King 
Alexander's  Porus  and  made  him  his  friend,  and  ad- 
advance,  vanced  to  the  Sutlej  (326).  He  had  reached 
the  limit.  Further  than  this  his  men  absolutely  refused 
to  go.  Neither  tears  nor  threats  availed.  May  we 
not  detect  here  some  weakening  of  character  through 
his  want  of  self-control?  The  soldiers  *' struck,"  and 
he  was  forced  to  give  in. 

Returning  to  the  Jelum,  he  founded  the  two  cities  of 
Nicaea  and  Bucephala  on  its  banks,  and  then  sailed 
down  it   into  the  Indus,  and  so  to  the  Indian  Ocean 


mmniMm. 


M 


no 


ALEXANDER'S  CAMPAIGNS 


Siatuie  Miles 


30 


«o 


ao 


40 


60 


60 


70 


80 


90 


'  1    '''''^*'^z..-7''''^^T7S^^^^T^'!^^^^'^^^f^i^^i^^iS'\^^ff^^^l^ 


'  i 


III 

Mi 


ALEXANDER 


313 


(325).  On  his  way  he  had  amusing  conversations  with 
some  of  the  native  sages  according  to  the  -,^^j^  . , 
story  preserved  by  Phitarch.  These  were  some  the  native 
of  his  questions  and  the  answers  they  gave  "s^S®^-" 
him.  "  Which  do  you  consider  to  be  the  more 
numerous,  the  living  or  the  dead?  "— '*  The  living  :  for 
the  dead  have  ceased  to  exist."  ^*  Which  is  the  most 
unscrupulous  of  all  animals  ?  " — '*  That  which  so  far  is 
unknown  to  man"  {i.e.  man).  *' What  is  the  best  way 
for  a  man  to  win  affection?" — *'If  you  have  great 
power,  do  not  inspire  fear."  "  Which  is  the  stronger, 
life  or  death  ?  " — "  Life,  because  it  endures  so  many  ills." 
"  How  long  is  it  well  for  a  man  to  live  ?  " — **  As  long  as 
he  does  not  think  death  preferable  to  life."  To  the 
ridiculous  question,  *'  W^hich  is  older,  the  day  or  the 
night?"  the  sage  replied,  ''Day,  by  one  day." 
Alexander  expressed  surprise  at  the  answer  and  was 
promptly  told  that  '*  Abstruse  questions  deserve  abstruse 
answers." 

On  another  occasion  a  philosopher  taught  him  king- 
craft by  a  parable.  He  spread  a  shrivelled  hide  on  the 
ground  and  trod  along  the  edges  of  it.  As  he  An  acted 
trod  on  one  part,  another  part  immediately  parable, 
started  up.  Then  he  trod  heavily  on  the  middle,  and 
the  whole  lay  still  and  flat.  The  king,  he  meant,  should 
plant  himself  firmly  at  the  heart  of  his  empire  and  not 
travel  to  the  extremities  of  it. 

From  the  mouth  of  the  Indus,  Nearchus  sailed  with 
the  fleet  to  the  Euphrates,  while  Alexander  marched 
the  army  through  Beloochistan  to  Persepolis.  Attempted 
The  country  was  barren  and  empty:  hunger  Greeks  and 
and  disease  made  ravages  in  the  army,  so  Persians, 
that,  according  to  Plutarch,  though  he  entered  India 
with  120,000  foot  and  15,000  horse,  he  brought  back 
less  than  a  quarter  of  that  number,     On  reaching  Susa 


I 


314 


THE  ANCIENT  WOKLD 


(324),  he  set  the  example,  and  urged  his   officers  and 
men  to  follow  it,  of  marrying  Persian  wives.    Also  he 
admitted   large   numbers    of   Asiatics  into   his  army. 
Evidently  he  did  not  mean  his  conquest  to  be  a  mere 
passing  raid  or  foraging  expedition,  but  wished  it  to 
lead    to    a    lasting   settlement   and    improvement  by 
amalgamation  of  victors  and  vanquished.     Thus  it  was 
that  the  English  race  long  afterwards  was  progressively 
improved  and  strengthened  by  absorption  of  successive 
invaders,  Komans,  Saxons,  Danes,  and  Normans.     But 
Alexander's   Macedonians    resented    this    step.     They 
believed  in  keeping  a  proper  distance  from  the  inferior 
race  and  not  cheapening  their  privileges.     And  so  once 
more    there  was   mutiny,  and   part  of   the   army  was 
sent  home  to  Greece. 

When  Ecbatana  was  reached,  Alexander's  close 
friend,  Hephaestion,  who  had  been  brought  up  with 
Death  of  him,  died  of  a  fever.  In  the  midst  of  gay 
Hephaestion.  festivities,  he  was  in  bed  on  a  strict  diet. 
But  his  doctor  Glaucus  having  gone  to  the  theatre, 
he  got  up,  ate  a  roasted  chicken  and  drank  a  flagon 
of  iced  wine;  his  fever  grew  worse  and  he  died. 
Alexander  behaved  in  a  puerile  manner  worthy  of  a 
Xerxes  or  a  Caligula.  He  had  all  the  horses  and  mules 
shorn  and  the  battlements  of  the  city  pulled  down  in 
sign  of  mourning,  and  crucified  the  unlucky  doctor! 
Then  he  relieved  his  sorrow  by  his  favourite  pastime — 
war. 

What  a  pity  it  is  that  he  did  not  carry  out  his 
intention  of  sailing  round  Arabia  and  Africa  and  returu- 
Unreaiized  ing  to  Greece  by  the  Pillars  of  Hercules 
projects.  (Straits  of  Gibraltar)  !  He  would  have  found 
it  a  rather  longer  voyage  than  he  anticipated,  but  he 
could  afford  the  time,  and  the  results  might  have  been 
priceless,  to  the  world.    He  was  dissuaded  from  this 


ALEXANDER 


315 


enterprise,  and  was  prevented  by  a  most  unexpected 
death  from  carrying  out  other  plans,  which  included  not 
only  the  conquest  of  Arabia,  but  the  invasion  of  Italy. 
The  student  may  speculate  with  interest  on  the  probable 
issue  of  a  conflict  between  the  great  Macedonian  and 
the  future  conquerors  of  the  world  then  barely  coming 
of  age  and  only  beginning  to  know  their  strength. 
^      All  his  plans  and  ambitions  were  cut  short,  largely, 
it  must  be  confessed,  owing  to  his  intemperate  habits ' 
Having    given    his     admiral    Nearchus     a   Death  of 
sumptuous    feast     he     followed     it    up    by   Alexander, 
drinking  all  that  night  and  all  next  day,  till  he  was 
stopped  by  a  fever,  which  he  never  shook  off.     For  the 
first  ^  four   days  he  went   on  playing  dice,  eating  and 
bathing,  and  probably  drinking.     The  illness,  of  course 
grew  worse.     On  the  fifth  the  fever  was  violent ;  on  the 
eighth  he  was  speechless;  on  the  ninth  the  soldiers 
alarmed   and   mutinous,  insisted   on  seeing  him    and 
were  allowed  to  defile  past   his   bed,  though  he  could 
neither  move  nor  speak.     On  the  eleventh  day  in  the 
evening  he  died  (323).     He  was  not  quite  33. 

Gossip  said  years  afterwards  that  he  had  been 
poisoned,  but  it  was  never  proved,  and  what  will  not 
Gossip  say  ?     The  story  is  generally  disbelieved. 

It  would  be  quite  a  mistake  to  regard  Alexander's 
conquests   merely  as  a  destructive  raid  like  those  of 
Attila  the  Hun.     In  the  short  space  of  time 
at  his  disposal,  ten  years,  from  the  battle  of  ffhi? 
Is3us  to  his  death,  it   might  seem  that  he    <^onquests. 
must  have  been,  without  interruption,  in  a  hurry,  and 
fighting  battles  or  preparing  for   them,  with  never  a 
moment  to  give  to  anything  else,  with  the  regrettable 
exception  of  carousing.     But,  after  all,  the  battles  he 
fought  were  not  so  excessively  numerous,  and,  thoucrh 
he  drank  more  than  he  should,  he  did  find  time  for 


^ 

^ 


A 


316 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


much  else  besides.  It  is  true  his  conquests  in  India  did 
not  survive  him.  But,  with  this  exception,  wherever 
he  went,  he  did  the  work  of  conquest  so  thoroughly  and 
laid  the  foundations  so  w^ell  that  there  rose  on  them 
three  great  kingdoms,  Macedonia,  Syria  (including 
Persia  and  its  dependencies),  and  Egypt,  which  con- 
tinued to  flourish  for  one  and  a  half,  two  and  a  half,  and 
three  centuries,  respectively,  till  they  fell  in  turn  under 
the  all-embracing  rule  of  Rome. 


it 


N- 


CHAPTER   XVIII 


HANNIBAL 

And  I  will  die  a  hundred  thousand  deaths, 
Ere  break  the  smallest  parcel  of  this  vow. ' 

SUAKESPEARE. 

The  moment  Alexander  was  dead,  his  empire  was  a 
scene  of  the  wildest  confusion.    Eoxana's  son  was  not 
yet  born,  and  the  great  conqueror  on  his  death- 
bed had  given  his  ring  to  his  general  Perdiecas,  f/lTef" 
probably  meanu}g  him  to  assume  the  lead  and  ^n^^'s 
act  as  regent,  if  not  as  king.    But  the  other  ^"*'"- 
generals  were  not  disposed  to  accept  one  of  themselves 
as  their  master.    Each  thought  himself  at  least  as  good 
as  any  of  the  rest,  perhaps  as  all  the  rest.     They  were 
all  as  confident  of  their  own  surpassing  virtues  as  they 
were  conscious  of  each  other's  shortcomings.     And  so 
there  was  a  wild  scramble  for  power.    The  history  of  the 
next  forty  years  or  so  (323-278  b.c.)  is  one  continuous 
whirl  leaving  the  reader  exhausted  and  dizzy  with  a 
confused  impression  of  plots  and  counterplots,  intri^rues 
wars  and  murders.    It  was  a  ruthless  melee,  in  which 
every  consideration   but  unmitigated    self-interest  was 
remorselessly   trampled   underfoot.     First  one  general 
would  make  a  bid  for  the  supremacy :  all  the  rest  would 
league  against  him  and  compass  his  downfall     Then 
one  of  the  confederates  would  step  on  to  the  pedestal, 
only  to  be  m  his  turn  pulled  down  and  despatched  by 
his  former  allies.     The  greatest  of  the  battles  of  this 

317 


IM 


m-^^^iim^^i^^^^^^^js^i 


318 


rn 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


internecine  conllict  was  fought  at  Ipsus  in  301  li.c,  but 
it  was  not  the  only  one.  Finally  the  net  result  of  all 
this  appalling  waste  of  blood  and  power  was  that  the 
family  of  Alexander  was  extinguished,  and  that  his 
empire  was  carved  into  three  kingdoms,  Macedonia, 
Syria,  and  Egypt,  under  the  descendants  of  three  of  his 
generals,  Antigonus,  Seleucus,  and  Ptolemy.  They  mis- 
governed, they  quarrelled,  they  fought:  what  royal 
neighbours  do  not?  But,  for  all  that,  the  East  now 
possessed  some  measure  of  unity.  All  those  kingdoms 
were  alike  ruled  by  Greek  dynasties ;  the  Greek  language 
was  spoken  in  all  of  them,  and  Eastern  art,  even  as  far 
as  the  Punjab,  had  passed  under  Hellenic  influence. 

Wide  as  was  the  area  covered  by  Alexander's  con- 
quests, the  knowledge  of  the  age  extended  even  beyond 
Intercourse  ^^^^^-  Aristotle,  who  was  Alexander's  tutor, 
between  speaks  in  his  Natural  History  of  the  silk- worm, 
Greece  and     ,^^^^  g^^g  ^.j^^^  ^^.^^  -^  women  reel  off  cocoons 

and  spin  them,  and  that  according  to  the 
general  belief,  this  art  first  flourished  in  the  island  of 
Cos  (or  the  Aegean  Sea).  Now,  the  silk- worm  is  a  native 
of  China,  and  the  silk  industry  flourished  there  at  a  very 
remote  period,  over  two  thousand  years  b.c,  and  the 
Greek  and  Latin  words  for  **  Chinese  "  and  "  silk  "  were 
derived  from  the  Chinese  name  for  "  silk-worm."  Clearly 
there  was  commercial  intercourse  between  China  and 
the  West  overland,  through  Turkestan,  Persia,  and  Asia 
Minor,  even  in  those  early  days. 

The.great  Chow  Dynasty  (1122-249  b.c),  as  we  know, 
had  fallen  on  evil  days.  The  central  authority  had 
China:  weakened,  and  the  rival  components  of   the 

Tiieciiin       empire  fought  for  the  supremacy,  with  fatal 
ynasty.       i-esuits.     This  civil  strife  was  still  proceeding 
when  Alexander's  generals  were   fighting  over  his  in- 
heritance.   It  was  ended  by  the  rise  of  the  Tsin  or  Chin 


HANNIBAL 


319 


Dynasty,  which   gave  the  empire  our  modern  name  of 
China,  about  249  b.c.     The  greatest  name  of  this  Hne 
was  Che-Hwang-te,  who  was  the  first  "universal  emperor" 
of  a  Chinese  emjiire  practically  identical  in  extent  with 
its  modern  representative.    He  fought  successful  wars 
against  wild  tribes  on  the  northern  and  western  frontiers 
and  began  (214  b.c.)  the  building  of  the  famous  The  Great 
Great  Wall  of  China,  running  from  the  Gulf  Waii. 
of  Pe-chi-li,  a  little  north  of  Peking,  westwards  to  the 
Nanshan  Mountains,  a  distance  of  1800  miles.     He  died 
ni  210  B.C.,  and  his  death  was  followed,  like  Alexander's, 
by  a  period  of  plots  and  wars,  both  his   son  and  his 
grandson  being  murdered  in  rapid  succession,  till  in  203 
the  Han  Dynasty  seized   the  supreme  power.     In   the 
course  of  its  operations  against  Tatars  and  other  invaders 
this  dynasty  had  relations  with  the  inhabitants  of  modern 
West  Turkestan,  just  east  of  the  Caspian,  where  the 
Chinese  must  have  come  into  contact  with  the  Greek 
kingdom  of  the  Seleucids. 

During  his  stay  in  India  Alexander  did  not  organize 
any  provinces.    He  founded  two  cities,  Bucephala,  near 
the  modern  Jalalpur,  in  honour  of  his  charger 
Bucephalus,  and  Nicaea   the   present    Mong,  Its^inlom 
both  on  the  Jelum ;  and  he  assigned  lands  to  ^^®  ^®^®^- 
friendly  rulers  and  left  Greeks  at  their  courts.  '''^'' 
But  that  was  all.     He  never  returned,   and   the  work 
begun  was  never  completed.     In  a  very  short  time  the 
Indian  portion  of  Seleucus's  kingdom  of  Syria  fell  away. 
Seleucus,  in  return  for  five  hundred  elephants,  ceded 
them  to  the  Indian  conqueror  from  the  Ganges,  Chandra 
Gupta,  gave  him  his  daughter  in  marriage,  and  stationed 
a  Greek  ambassador,  Megasthenes,  at  his  court.  Chandra 
Gupta  reigned  from  316  to  292  b.c,  and  was  known  to 
the  Greeks  as  Sandrocottus.     He  was  a  Buddhist,  and 
bis  grandson  was  the  King  Asoka  (264-223  b.c),  famous 


f 


I 


320 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


I 


Britain. 


for  his  patronage  of  Biuldhism.  The  relations  hetween 
Greeks  and  Indians  continued  friendly  for  over  a  century, 
and  Greek  art  had  time  to  make  a  perceptible  impression 
on  the  native  art  of  the  Punjab.  The  connexion  was 
not  severed  till  in  the  last  century  u.c.  India  was  broken 
into  by  Tatars  and  Scythians. 

As  regards  the  West,  an  enterprising  Greek  of 
Massilia  (Marseilles),  called  Pytheas,  either  during 
Alexander's  lifetime  or  immediately  after, 
sailed  as  far  as  Britain  and  a  country  he 
called  Thule,  which  may  have  been  the  Shetland s  or 
perhaps  Iceland.  But  that  was  an  adventurer's  voyage, 
of  which  there  was  no  practical  out^^ome.  It  is  true  the 
Phoenicians  before  this  had  sailed  to  the  Scilly  Isles  for 
tin.  But  Britain  was  wild  and  unattractive,  and  no 
attempt  was  made  to  annex  or  even  explore  it. 

The  Nearer  West,  the  world  just  beyond  the  Ionian 
Sea,  was  now  to  be  the  scene  of  a  Titanic  struggle.  The 
Rome  and  two  rivals  were  Rome  and  Carthage,  and  the 
Carthage.  prize  nothing  less  than  the  command  of  the 
sea  and  the  control  of  the  world's  trade.  As  might  have 
been  expected,  the  first  collision  took  place  on  that  step- 
ping-stone between  the  two  hostile  cities,  Sicily.  Twenty 
years  after  the  death  of  the  patriot  and  saviour  of  Sicily, 
Timoleon,  and  six  years  after  that  of  Alexander,  Syra- 
cuse fell  into  the  power  of  Agathocles  (317).  Born  and 
brought  up  as  a  potter  in  one  of  the  Cartha- 
ginian towns  of  the  island,  he  was  befriended 
by  a  Syracusan  noble,  after  whose  death  he  married  his 
widow,  thus  becoming  one  of  the  wealthiest  men  in  the 
city.  To  wealth  he  added  power,  when  collecting  an 
army  he  made  himself  master  of  Syracuse  and  of  the 
greater  part  of  Sicily.  He  continued  the  everlasting  war 
of  the  Sicilian  Greeks  against  the  Carthaginians,  but 
improved  on  the  methods  of  his  predecessors  by  boldly 


Agathocles. 


HANNIBAL  321 

carrying  the  war  into  the  enemy's  country,  where  he  had 
everything  h.s  own  way  till  he  was  recalled  by  trouble 
at  home  He  ended  his  life  in  melancholy  circum- 
stances  (some  say  he  was  poisoned),  thanks  to  the 
crimes  of  a  good-for-nothing  grandson  (289). 

Now  Agathocles  had  quartered  in  Messana  (modern 
Messina)  some  Campanian  mercenaries  called  Mamertini 
After  their  master's  death,  they  made  them-  ^  „ 
selves  masters  of  the  town,  and  for  years  were  Sta?""- 
the  terror  of  the  country  round  through  their  "<"»»»«• 
lawless  brigandage.    Hiero,  a  Syracusan  noble  descended 
from  the  tyrant  Gelon,  succeeded  in  beating  them   and 
was  made  King  of  Syracuse  by  the  grateful  citizens  (270) 
But    he   trouble  did  not  end  there.     The  Mamertini 
appealed  for  help,  some  to  Carthage  and  others  to  Rome. 
The  Carthaginians  lost  no  time  in  settling  themselves  in 
the  citadel  of  Messana.    It  was  a  golden  opportunity  not 
0  be  missed.    But  the  Eomans  had  their  own  views  on 
the  subject.    They  could  not  tolerate  the  presence  of 
a  Cartluigiman  fortress  so  close  to  their  own  lately- 
acquired  Rhegium  and  commanding  the  entrance  into 
Sicily  from  the  Italian  side,  and  decided  to  respond  to 
the  Mamertine  call  for  help.    By  a  trick  they  got  the 
Carthaginians  out  and  established  themselves  firmly  in 
their  pace.    This  collision  was   the   beginning  of  the 
Punic  Wars  (264).  ^ 

The  Punic  Wars  (Punic  is  Latin  for  Phoenician,  and 
Carthage  was  a  Phoenician  colony)  were  three  in  number. 
The  first  lasted  from  264  to  241,  and  by  it  the  ry,  ,. 
Eomans  ultimately  wrested  from  Carthage  the  P^io" 
command  of  the  sea,  and  drove  her  out  of  ^»"- 
Sicily.    The  second  (218-202)  was  occupied  by  Hannibal's 
invasion  of  Italy,  ending  with  his  recall  to  Carthage  and 
defeat  by  the  elder  Scipio  at  Zama.    The  third  (149-146) 
saw  the  siege  and  capture  of  Carthage  by  the  younger 


I 


322 


THE   ANCIENT  WOKLD 


HANNIBAL 


323 


First  Punic 

War. 

Borne 

becomes  a 

Naval 

Power. 


Bcipio,   which   gave   Rome   the  control  of   the  western 
[Mediterranean. 

The  year  after  the  occupation  of  Messana,  the  Romans 
obtained  a  priceless  ally  in  Hiero,  the  King  of  Syracuse, 
who  remained  unwaveringly  loyal.    The  inland 
towns  were  pro-Roman,  but  the  coast  towns, 
fearing  the  Punic  fleets,  sided  with  Carthage, 
and  the  Romans  realized  very  soon  that  the 
one  essential  thing  was,  at  any  cost,  to  secure 
command  of  the  sea.     What  followed  showed  the  extra- 
ordinary, almost  superhuman,  determination  the  Romans 
were  capable  of  when  once  their  minds  were  made  up. 
It  is  confidently  asserted  by  ancient  historians  that  at  the 
outbreak  of  the  war  they  did  not  possess  a  single  ship ; 
that,  finding  a  Carthaginian  warship   wrecked   on   the 
Bruttian  coast,  they  used  it  as  a  model,  taught  them- 
selves shipbuilding,  converted  a  growing  forest  into  a 
fleet  of  a  hundred  sail  in  sixty  days,  trained  raw  crews  of 
land-lubbers  to  row  on  scaffolds  erected   on  the   sand, 
while  the  ships  were  building,  to  save  time;  and  then 
sailed   out   and   won   their   first   engagement   with   the 
leading  maritime  power  of  the  age  !     We  need  not  press 
the  details.    The  story  shows  how  the  actual  facts  struck 
the  world ;  and,  truly,  they  were  sufficiently  astonishing. 
The   Romans   did   possess   ships,  for  they  had  officers 
called  Commissioners  of  the  Fleet  {Daumviri  navaks),  and 
they  had  fought  with  the  Etruscan  pirates  at  sea.     But 
the  fact  remains  that  they  were  by  nature  not  a  sea-faring 
people  and  that  they  did  win  their  first  engagement  with 
those    born    seamen,     the    Phoenicians    of    Carthage. 
Possibly  (this  is  only  a  suggestion)  the  story  about  crews 
trained  on  land  arose  from  the  Romans  hiring  sailors 
from  the  west  coast  of  Greece  and  the  Ionian  islands  and 
bringing  them  overland  across  Italy  to  the  Tuscan  sea  to 
esca[>e  the  vigilance  of  the  Carthaginians.    Whatever  the 


means,  launch  a  fleet  they  did,  and  with  it  they  defeated 
the  enemy  at  Mylae  off  the  Sicilian  coast  (260)      Thev 
knew,  of  course,  that  they  were  no  match  for  them  in 
seamanship,  and  owed  their  victory  to  DuilHus's  ingenious 
device  of  a  spiked  boarding-bridge,  which  being  let  down 
suddenly  on  to  th«  enemy's  deck  enabled  the  Eomans  to 
grapple  firmly  and  to  board,  thus  converting  the  sea-fight 
into  a  land  battle,  and  neutralizing  all  the  advantage  the 
Car  hagimans  might  reasonably  have  expected  to  possess. 
Elated  by  further  successes  they  invaded  Africa,  but  were 
beaten  by  the  generalship  of  the  Spartan  Xanthippus. 
a  soldier  of  fortune  in  the  pay  of  Carthage,  and  lost  the 
consu     Regulus   and    his  army   (255).      In    247    also 
Ilamilcar  Barca.  the  father  of  Hannibal  (who  was  born  in 
tnis  very  year),  gained  some  successes  against  them,  but 
live  years  later  the  war  was  finally  settled  by  the  Roman 
naval  victory  at  the  Aegates  Islands  (242).    Carthage 
was  obliged  to  pay  a  huge  war  indemnity  and  to  abandon 
Sicily  and  the  smaller  islands   between  it  and  Italy 
Hiero,  the  faithful  ally,  retained  his  own  territorv   but 
he  rest  oi  the  island  went  to  Rome,  forming  its  first 
transmarine  province  (241). 

So  far  the  advantage  was  all  on  the  side  of  Rome 
Carthage  had  lost  a  valuable  province,  and  the  control  of 
the   Mediterranean  traffic  from  east  to  west 
and  vice  versa ;   she  had  a  powerful  enemy  Sge 
planted  close  by,  facing  her  across  a  narrow  ''*""*• 
strait ;  and  she  had  lost  for  ever  the  command  of  the 
sea.    It  seems  to  us  incredible  that,  starting  with  the 
enormous  naval  superiority  she  possessed,  she  should 
ever  have  allowed  herself  to   lose  it.      She  had    the 
maritime  instinct  and  immense  wealth  wherewith  to 
repair  any  losses  and  wear  down  the  enemy     Yet  the 
fact  IS  so.    The  nation  with  the  longest  purse  did  not 
win.     And   the  reason?     The   Carthaginians  did   not 


!s»Mfii^,-^.-i:9i-siES®tjg{-Si:.,i3^^ 


'"''"^^^^i^^""^^^*^^''*'**^'^^ 


324 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


believe  in  "  personal  service."  They  stayed  at  home 
making  money,  while  paid  mercenaries  looked  after  the 
fighting.  But  sea-power  leads  no  charmed  existence. 
It  is  a  thing  which  can  be  lost.  Athens  lost  it ;  Carthage 
lost  it ;  France  lost  it.  Woe  to  the  nation  which,  after 
staking  its  whole  existence  on  it,  and  becoming  entirely 
dependent  upon  it,  neglects  and — loses  it ! 

Carthage  had  lost  the  command  of  the  sea  for  ever. 
She  never  recovered  it  and  that  eventually  was  her 
Carthage  undoing.  Three  years  later  she  had  to  give 
and  Spain,  ^p  Sardinia  and  Corsica  to  Rome  (238).  But 
the  end  was  not  yet.  Hamilcar  Barca,  with  a  true  in- 
stinct, turned  the  attention  of  Carthage  in  a  new 
direction,  and  after  eight  years  of  strenuous  w^ork 
presented  her  with  a  new  dominion  in  Spain,  which 
might  yet  prove  her  salvation.  He  died  in  battle,  and 
his  work  was  continued  by  his  son-in-law  Hasdrubal, 
who  founded  New  Carthage  (228).  Seven  years  later, 
Hasdrubal  being  murdered,  the  command  in  Spain  fell 
(221)  to  Hannibal,  the  twenty-six-year-old  son  of  the 
Hamilcar  who  had  founded  the  Spanish  colony. 

The  old  war  with  Rome  was  revived  and  immediately 
entered  on  its  most  dramatic  stage.  With  the  true 
Second  Boldier's  instinct,  Hannibal,  who  as  a  young 

Pnnic  War.    boy  had  vowed  eternal  enmity  to  Rome,  saw 

fe^idesfo  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^^^^  proper  way  to  conduct  a  war  was 
invade  to  assume  the  offensive  and  carry  the  fighting 

Italy.  -j^i.^  ^j^g  enemy's  country.     The  Romans  must 

be  attacked  in  Italy  itself.  But  how  was  he  to  get  there  ? 
Carthage  had  lost  her  naval  superiority  and  the  sea  was 
closed  to  her :  at  least,  she  could  never  carry  over  un- 
challenged and  land  in  Italy  a  sufficient  force  to  be  of 
any  use.  There  remained  the  overland  route.  The 
distance  was  great,  the  way  unexplored,  the  people  un- 
friendly.    Any  general  might  well  have  quailed  before 


HANNIBAL 


325 


the  prospect.  Not  so  Hannibal.  Probably,  almost 
certainly,  he  had  heard  or  read  of  Alexander's  exploits, 
and  his  young  ambition  was  fired.  The  fall  of  Tyre 
must  inevitably  have  re-echoed  in  Carthage,  and  Cartha- 
ginians must  have  followed  anxiously  the  fortunes  of  its 
conqueror  and  may  even  have  trembled  when  Alexander, 
returning  from  India,  began  to  turn  his  thoughts  west- 
wards. 

Hannibal  formed  his  project  and  clung  to  it.   He  pro- 
ceeded methodically.    Like  Alexander  and  like  Frederick 
the  Great,  he  was  provided  by  his  father  with  He  takes 
an  army  ready-made.     It  remained  to  use  it.  Saguntum. 
When  all  was  ready,  he  deliberately  besieged,  and  after 
eight  months  took  Saguntum,  a  Graeco- Spanish  town  in 
alliance  with  Rome,  and  won   much  spoil.     The  siege 
served  a  triple  purpose.     By  it  he  picked  a  quarrel  with 
Rome,  he  tested  the  efficiency  of  his  troops,  and  he  gave 
his  men  a  taste  for  booty  and  a  craving  for  the  wealth  of 
Italy  (218). 

He   struck   while    the    iron   was    hot.      Without   a 
moment's  delay  he  started  for  Rome.     The  year  was 
crowded  with  events.     The  Romans  were  not  Hannibal 
idle,  but,  knowing  like  Hannibal  that  the  secret  ^^^^^^  : 
of  defence  lies  in  aggressive  tactics,  they  im-  fou^w- 
mediately   despatched    a   force    under    Sem-  °^°^^^' 
pronius  to  Sicily  with  orders  to  proceed  to  Africa,  and 
another  under  Scipio  to  Spain.     Having  command  of  the 
sea  they  could  take  short  cuts   to   their  destinations. 
What  would  Hannibal  not  have  given  for  a  fleet  and  a 
clear  sea  ? 

^  So  rapid   were   Hannibal's  movements  that,  when 
Scipio  arrived  at   Massilia  (Marseilles),  on  his  way  to 
Spain  to  prevent,  as  he  hoped,  Hannibal  from  scipio  too 
crossing   the    Pyrenees,    he  found    that    the  ^*^®- 
Carthaginian   army  had  already   actually   crossed   the 


Ill 


326 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Bhone  and  was  well  on  its  way  to  the  Alps  !  Sending 
his  hrother  on  to  Spain,  he  doubled  back  to  Italy,  in- 
tending to  give  the  invader  a  warm  reception  on  his 
descent  into  the  upper  valley  of  the  Po.  Sempronius 
was  at  the  same  time  recalled  from  Sicily.  Rome  was 
really  a  little  alarmed. 

Hannil)al  left  New  Carthage  early  in  the  summer 
(218)  with  90,000  foot,  12,000  horse,  and  37  elephants, 
The  cross-  ^^^  ^^  ^^^  ^^  leave  some  thousands  behind  to 
ing  of  the  hold  Spain  and  crossed  the  Pyrenees  with  not 
^^P'-  more  than   50,000  foot  and  9000  horse,  all 

veterans.  He  was  in  a  great  hurry,  as  he  must  cross  the 
Alps  before  the  summer  was  over.  Partly  buying  and 
partly  fighting  his  way  through  southern  Gaul,  he 
crossed  the  first  natural  obstacle,  the  Rhone,  by  a 
stratagem,  and  after  engaging  in  a  tribal  civil  war,  found 
himself  very  soon  at  the  foot  of  the  great  mountain 
barrier  dividing  him  from  his  goal.  We  shall  probably 
never  know  for  certain  what  route  he  took  across  the  Alps. 
Neither  Poly  bins,  though  he  went  personally  over  the 
line  of  march  only  a  generation  later,  nor  Livy,  who 
presumably  collected  and  compared  all  the  available 
evidence,  gives  us  a  sufficiently  clear  account  of  this 
famous  passage  to  leave  no  room  in  one's  mind  for 
doubt.  A  glance  at  a  good  scale  contour  or  relief  map 
will  suffice  to  show  the  possible  passes  that  Hannibal 
could  choose  from.  They  are,  from  north  to  south,  the 
Great  St.  Bernard,  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  the  Mont 
Cenis,  the  Mont  Genevre  and  the  Col  d'Argenti^re  or 
de  Larche. 

It  is  generally  taken  for  granted  that  Hannibal's 
route  is  quite  established  as  far  as  the  Island  of  AUobroges, 
that  is,  the  country  enclosed  by  the  confluence  of  the 
Bhone  and  the  Isere,  which  would  cut  out  the  southern 
passes  as  well  as  the  most  northerly  pass  and  reduce 


a'*«5fj^fwW(^Js#<r*flLjy.      ^      ^-^fv^j* 


aigsaa^qwap" 


HANNIBAL 


327 


the  choice  to  the  Little  St.  Bernard  and  the  Mont  Cenis. 
Some  writers  *  go  so  far  as  to  take  it  as  proved  beyond 
doubt  that  the  pass  was  the  Little  St.  Bernard,  alleging 
as   conclusive  jn-oof  the   identification   of  the    "White 
Rock"  mentioned  in  Livy's  account.     But  such  rocks 
are  not  uncommon ;  and  there  is  at  least  something  to 
be  said  for  the  too  readily  rejected  southern  passes.     In 
a  general  way,  they  lie  more  in  the  direct  line  to  Italy, 
and  so  would  commend  themselves  more  to  the  impatient 
soldiers ;  and,  also,  they  are  lower  and  would  therefore 
remain  longer  free  from  snow.     The  lowest  of  all  is  the 
Mont  Genevre  pass,  6110  ft. ;  Mont  Cenis  is  6796  ft.  and 
the  Little  St.  Bernard  is  7111  ft.     The  Great  St.  Bernard 
is  out  of  the  question,  being  the  highest  of  all  (8034  ft.), 
and  requiring  a  long  roundabout  journey  by  the  north, 
along  the  Lake  of  Geneva,  which  is  never  mentioned. 
In  favour  of  the  Little  St.  Bernard  is  the  fact  that  it  is 
an  extremely  easy  pass,   much  used,   and   crossed  by 
artillery  in  1815,  without  the  making  of  a  road,  so  easy 
are  its  grassy  slopes.     The  historian  Mommsen  selects 
this  pass.     On  the  other  hand,  the  Mont  Cenis  can  be 
reached  easily  from  the  Isere  by  the  valley  of  the  Arc, 
and  would  land  Hannibal  close  to  Turin,  which  he  took 
shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Italy.     The  Mont  Genevre 
would   do   this   also   and   is   easily    reached    from    the 
Durance  which  Hannibal  struck  at  some  stage  of  the 
march  according  to  Livy.   Finally,  the  Col  de  I'Argentiere 
is  also  reached  from  the  Durance,  and  in  that  neighbour- 
hood is   a  traditional   "  Camp  d'Annibal "  and  a  rock 
called  **  Table  d'Annibal,"  which  look  like  reminiscences 
of    his    passage    there.     Our   two    ancient   authorities, 
Polybius   and    Livy,    are    quite   unsatisfactory.      After 
Hannibal's   arrival   at  the   "Island"  of  the  AUobroges, 
Polybius  mentions  no  names  of  tribes  or  localities,  and 

•  E.g.  R.  B.  Smith,  "  Rome  and  Carthage." 


*v  >SWSliij#!SM«Mi*l»^  ift*4fli--''^*(S&-^ffi«»-'W 


<^^i^»^'^s^'mm^mm^i^mmm^^^^^m^^^^m 


328 


THE  ANCIENT  WOULD 


Livy's  account   is   inconsistent   and   difficult  to  follow. 
The  problem  remains  still  unsolved. 

By  this  pass  or  that,  Hannibal  crossed  the  Alps  late 
in  October  and  arrived  in  Italy,  somewhere  in  the 
The  neighbourhood  of  Turin,  on  the  15th  day  from 

Ticinus.  ^^Yie  beginning  of  the  ascent.  He  had  now 
only  20,000  foot  and  6,000  horse,  and  yet  he  never 
hesitated  to  go  through  with  his  project !  It  was 
fortunate  for  Rome  that  Scipio  had  turned  back  the 
quickest  way  from  Marseilles.  He  was  now  posted  at 
Placentia,  ready  to  check  any  attempt  of  the  Gauls  at  a 
rising  and  to  confront  the  invader.  The  first  collision  was 
a  cavalry  skirmish  on  the  Ticinus  (Ticino),  a  small 
tributary  of  the  Po,  flowing  into  it  from  the  north. 
Hannibal's  horsemen  were  completely  victorious,  and 
Scipio,  who  was  himself  badly  wounded  and  owed  his  life 
to  the  pluck  of  his  son,  afterwards  the  victor  of  Zama, 
retreated  hastily  to  Placentia,  sacrificing  more  men  in 
order  to  break  down  the  bridge  over  the  Ticinus. 

Hannibal  did  not  pursue  him,  but  crossed  the  Po 
further  west  and  made  as  though  he  were  going  quietly 

Th  Tr  b'  *^  ^^^^  ^^  ^"^^  ^^^  advance  on  Rome.  Scipio 
therefore  moved  his  camp  to  the  Trebia, 
another  tributary  of  the  Po  flowing  into  it  from  the 
Apennines,  so  as  to  bar  his  way.  Sempronius's  army, 
recalled  from  Sicily,  joined  him  here  and  the  Romans 
had  about  40,000  men  of  all  arms.  But  Hannibal's 
success  at  the  Trebia  had  won  him  considerable  Gallic 
reinforcements.  It  must  be  remembered  that  if  Hannibal 
had  the  audacity  to  march  down  Italy  with  26,000  men, 
it  was  because  he  reckoned  on  the  natives  of  Italy,  Gauls 
and  Samnites  and  others,  flocking  to  his  standard  and 
fighting  for  him  as  a  deliverer  from  the  oppression  of 
Rome.  This  was  the  character  he  assumed,  and  every- 
thing depended  for  him  on   some  early  and   striking 


HANNIBAL 


329 


success  which  would  enhance  his  reputation  as  it  would 
damage  Rome's.     The  fight  on  the  banks  of  the  Trebia 
was  to  be  a  pitched  battle,  and  we  may  easily  imagine 
with  what  anxious  care  the  invader  laid  his  plans.    And 
exceedingly  well  they  were  laid.     It  was  raw  December 
weather  with  snow  in  the  air  and  the  river  icy  cold.    He 
placed  his  brother  Mago  with  2000  men  in  a  well-con- 
cealed ambush.     Then  he  ordered  his  men  to  have  a 
good  breakfast  and  fall  in,  and  sent  the  Numidian  light 
cavalry  across  the  river,  with  orders  to  retreat  and  draw 
the  enemy  after  them.     Everything  went  according  to 
the  programme.     Sempronius   was  eager  to  show  his 
superiority  to   the  beaten   and   wounded   Scipio.     The 
Numidians  fell  back,  pretending  to  be  defeated,  and  the 
whole   Roman   army,   breakfastless   and  cold,    followed 
them  across  the  icy  water  of  the  Trebia.    As  they  emerged 
on  the  further  bank,  the  Numidians  vanished  like  smoke, 
revealing  Hannibal's  army,  well-fed  and  warm  and  in 
perfect  order,  waiting  for  them.     They  were  attacked  in 
front  and  flanks  and  finally  by  Mago's  ambush  in  the 
rear,  and  their  rout  was  complete.     Sempronius  cut  his 
way  through  to  Placentia,  and  the  whole  army,  or  rather 
the  remnant  of  it,  fell  back  to  Cremona.     Hannibal  had 
won   a  decisive  victory  and  more  and   more   reinforce- 
ments flocked  to  him.     He  was  master  of  all  northern 
Italy. 

^  The  Roman  forces  were  now  posted  in  two  bodies,  at 
Ariminum     (Rimini)     and    Arretium    (Arrezzo)    under 
Servihus  and  Flaminius  respectively  :  in  other  ^ 
words,  there  was  one  army  on  either  side  of  the  forces 
Apennines  and  on  either   side  of  the  Tiber.  nJiiibai 
It  was  not  known  by  which  route  Hannibal  gets 
would  advance,  and  the  fatal  mistake  was  made  *^^°^^- 
of  dividing  forces.    Hannibal  had  already  shown  himself 
a  consummate  tactician  on  the  field.    He  now  showed 


n 


H 


i'l: 


330 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


his  mastery  of  strategy  by  taking  the  enemy  utterly 
by  surprise  and  eluding  both  of  the  armies  set  to 
watch  him.  Instead  of  taking  the  easier  road  by  the 
flat  country  to  Ariminum,  he  crossed  the  Apennines 
by  a  difficult  pass  in  the  most  direct  line  between  the 
Trebia  and  Rome,  passed  through  Faesulae  (Fiesole), 
crossed  the  Arno,  and  calmly  marched  past  Arretium. 
The  Roman  armies  were  still  divided  and  Servilius  still 
waiting  at  Ariminum  for  Hannibal,  who  was  now  between 
the  Romans  and  their  base  !  Hannibal  went  on  burning 
and  harrying  and  making  for  Rome,  and  Flaminius 
was  forced  to  break  cover  and  follow  him. 

But  the  Carthaginian  had  a  day's  start,  and,  as 
he  reached  the  northern  shore  of  Lake  Trasimenus,  his 
Lake  keen  eye  saw  a  magnificent  opportunity  for 

Trasimenus.  g^  death-trap.  The  road  ran  along  the  lake, 
between  it  and  a  range  of  hills  which  at  two  points 
draw  quite  close  to  the  water,  leaving  only  a  narrow 
passage,  while  between  these  points  the  range  recedes  in 
a  shallow  curve.  Hannibal  concealed  his  best  heavy 
troops,  under  his  own  eye,  at  the  far  end  of  the  plain, 
closing  up  the  exit,  his  light  cavalry  and  Gauls  at  the 
entrance,  and  his  miscellaneous  light  troops  behind  the 
crest  of  the  heights  along  the  arc  between  these  two 
points.  His  pursuer,  carelessly  marching  without  scouts, 
walked  straight  into  the  trap,  and  the  sequel  may  be 
imagined.  The  slaughter  continued  for  hours.  Flaminius 
and  15,000  Romans  fell,  6000  were  captured.  Next  day 
4000  horse  sent  by  the  other  consul  at  Ariminum  were 
also  taken  prisoners.  The  army  was  annihilated  (217), 
while  every  fresh  victory  meant  more  reinforcements  to 
Hannibal. 

There  were  at  least  three  good  reasons  why  Hannibal 
could  not  march  straight  on  Rome.  He  had  no  siege- 
engines  ;    he    had    not  a   large   enough  army   for  an 


HANNIBAL 


331 


effective  blockade;   he  knew   that,  if  necessary,  every 

man  in  Rome  could,  at  short  notice,  become  a  soldier, 

armed  and  trained  and  fearless.     Besides,  to 

Hannibal's  disgust,  not  a  man  would  join  him  avoids 

in  Etruria ;  he  had  already  as  many  recruits  ^°^^  ^^'J 
,  , ,  .     .  '^ . ,  , ,  _      goes  south, 

as   he   could   expect   from   the   north,  so   he 

reluctantly  turned  from  the  road  to  Rome  and,  recrossing 
the  Apennines,  marched  through  Umbria  and  Picenum 
to  Apulia,  to  see  what  forces  he  could  raise  in  the 
south. 

The  Romans  broke  down  the  bridges,  repaired  the 
walls,  and  made  a  supreme  effort  to  raise  an  overwhelming 
army  with  which  to  shake  off  the  intruder,  pabius's 
The  times  w^ere  critical,  and  Fabius  Maximus  waiting 
was    appointed    dictator.       The    new    com-  ^*°^®' 
mander  had  a  fixed  policy :  he  would  risk  no  pitched 
battle  with  Hannibal,  but  would  dog  his  footsteps  and 
worry  him  and  cut  off  stragglers,  till  his  own  countrymen 
could   raise  fresh  troops  and  pluck  up   fresh   courage. 
This   strategy  was   unpopular,   because  it  brought  no 
quick  or  brilliant  results,  but  it  saved  the  situation. 

*'  One  man  alone  knew  how  to  wait, 
And  by  his  waiting  saved  the  state."  * 

By  the  following  June  (216),  a  huge  army  of  over 
80,000  men,  under  the  two  new  consuls,  PauUus  and 
Varro,  faced  the  enemy's  50,000  near  Cannae, 
on  the  south  side  of  the  Anfidus  in  Apulia. 
The  senate's  strict  orders  were  to  fight  at  once.  The 
Roman  command  was  divided,  each  consul  being  supreme 
on  alternate  days,  a  fatal  mistake,  and  not  in  this  case 
remedied  as  it  was  at  Marathon.  Hannibal  played  with 
the  enemy.  By  various  manoeuvres,  lasting  some  days, 
he  induced  them  to  cross  the  river  and  give  battle  where 
his  keen  eye  had  marked  a  suitable  spot.     Across  a  deep 

*  Unus  homo  nobis  cunctando  restituit  rem  (Ennius). 


^^^^mim^^m^f^s^  *_— , 


=;  ■-.■.,i;..^ti'l*-  '^^^■asj>fe^^j??^r„  j.gtf  jfe^^^-^  ^ 


m^mmmmsmiaamsm 


382 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


loop  of  the  river  he  drew  up  his  army  with  its  back  to 
the  water,  facing  north-west,  GaUic  and  Spanish  infantry 
in  the  centre,  African  infantry  on  the  wings,  with  their 
extreme   left   and   extreme   right   resting   on  the  river, 
while  in  front  of  either  wing  was  the  cavalry.     The  loop 
of  the  river  swept  in  a  semicircle  behind  him.      It  was 
morning.     The  sun  was  shining  in  the  Eomans'  faces 
and  a  south-east  wind  was  blowing  the  dust  in  their  eyes. 
Hannibal  had  thought  of  everything.     At  the  beginning 
of  the  battle  the  centre  projected  somewhat  in  front  of 
the  rest  of  the  line.     The  Roman  legions,  delivering  a 
frontal  attack,  came  into  contact  with  this  centre  first, 
and,  by  previous  arrangement,  it  gradually  gave  way,  the 
line  thus  becoming  concave  instead  of  convex.     The  two 
wings  of  infantry,  using  their  extremities,  which  rested 
on  the  river,  as  pivots,  wheeled  inwards,  in  time  with  the 
retreating  centre,  till  the   whole  army  was  drawn  up, 
lining  the  loop  of  the  river  and  forming  a  deep  bowl. 
Into  this  the  Roman  legions  poured,  thinking  they  were 
winning,  and  hoping  to  drive  the  foe  into  the  water,  and 
apparently  never  suspecting  that  they  were  walking  into 
a  death-trap.     The  Carthaginian  army  presented  immov- 
able walls  on  three  sides,  and  then  the  cavalry,  which 
had  driven  the  Roman  horse  off  the  field,  returned  and 
closed  in  on  the  rear,  covering  the  bowl,  so  to  speak,  with 
a  lid.     The  battle  became  a  massacre ;  50,000  Romans 
were  left  on   the  field.     Their  losses  included  besides 
20,000  captured,  and  among  the  dead  were  the  consul 
Paullus,  a  pro-consul,  two  quaestors,  sixty  senators,  and 
an  unknown  number  of  knights.     Hannibal  lost  under 
6000  all  told  (216). 

There  was,  at  first,  a  panic  in  Rome ;  but  the  Romans 
never  really  lost  their  heads.  And  Hannibal  knew  it. 
He  has  been  severely  criticized  for  not  marching  straight 
on  the  city  after  Cannae.     But  he  knew  all  the  factors 


HANNIBAL 


333 


m  the  situation  better  than  his  critics,  and  the  fact 
that  he  did  not  march  on  Rome  shows  that  he  must 
have   had    good    reasons    for   not    doing    so. 
Rome  was^  the  one  goal  of  all  his  ambition  foes  nJ?^ 
and  all   his   stupendous   struggles   with  the  ™archon 
elements  and  on  the  field  of   battle.    Was  ^°°''' 
he  likely  to  forgo  a  chance  of  taking  it  if  it  was  a 
good  one  ? 

However,  the  character  of  the  war  from  this  point 
^■as   completely  changed.      Hannibal    fights    no    more 
pitched  battles.     He  marches  and  raids  much  ^^^ 
as  he  hkes,  for  none  dares  beard  him,  but  he  in  thf  *°^^ 
is  no  nearer  attaining  his  object.     The  war  '°''^^* 
becomes  a  game  of  chess  down  in  the  south.     Positions 
are  taken  and  re-taken.     For  many  years  neither  side 
has  the  advantage  (216-208). 

But  in  207  a  dramatic  incident  occurs.  Hannibal's 
brother  Hasdrubal  has  at  last  been  able  to  bring  him 
reinforcements  from  Spain  overland,  to  cross  The 
the  Alps,  and  to  advance  some  way  down  Italy  Metaurus. 
to  meet  him.  An  intercepted  despatch,  a  forced  march  by 
the  Romans  of  two  hundred  miles,  two  armies  united  in 
one  camp  at  dead  of  night,  a  desperate  battle  on  the 
banks  of  the  Metaurus,  and  his  unlucky  brother's  head 
pitched  into  Hannibal's  camp— the  tragedy  was  over 
before  Hannibal  knew  that  his  brother  was  in  Italy! 
The  grisly  spectacle  told  him  his  hopes  were  dead. 

Still  unconquerable  he  stood  at  bay;  but  four  years 
later  (203)  Scipio,  the  plucky  youth  of  the  Ticinus,  now 
become  a  leader  of  armies,  having  driven  the 
Carthaginians  from  Spain,  was  invading  Africa,  ^*°^** 
and  the  contemptible  Government,  who  had  not  moved  a 
finger  to  help  Hannibal,  now  recalled  him  to  save  them. 
He  thought  not  of  their  ingratitude  and  incapacity,  but 
of  his  country's  danger,  and  obeyed.     "  Seldom  has  an 


ll 


^^'g^B^^a^'^^^'^i^'-^iimraii^ 


334 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


exile  left  his  native  land  with  so  sad  a  heart  as  Hannibal 
left  the  country  of  his  foes."  *  He  met  Scipio  at  Zama 
(202) ;  but  his  army  was  composed  mostly  of  raw  recruits, 
and  the  battle  was  not  a  fair  test  of  his  powers.  Scipio, 
by  a  happy  inspiration,  left  wide  lanes  open  from  front 
to  rear  of  his  lines,  down  which  Hannibal's  elephants, 
scared  by  the  noise  of  trumpets,  ran  without  doing  the 
enemy  any  harm.  Hannibal's  veterans  died  where  they 
stood,  but  could  not  save  the  day.  Many  of  his  new 
troops  deserted,  and  the  battle  was  a  complete  victory 
for  Rome.  Carthage  was  humbled  in  the  dust.  She 
lost  Spain  and  the  remaining  islands,  gave  up  her  men- 
of-war,  and  paid  a  heavy  indemnity.  The  bitterness  of 
it !  Her  fleet  was  towed  out  of  the  harbour,  and  burnt 
in  the  ofling  before  her  eyes.  She  was  crippled,  and 
became  a  third-rate  power,  while  Rome  was  undisputed 
mistress  of  the  western  Mediterranean. 

Hannibal  was  the  one  man  who  might  still  have 
retrieved  his  country's  fortunes,  but  even  in  the  hour  of 
Death  of  dire  necessity,  Carthage  was  torn  by  faction, 
Hannibal,  ^j^^  Hannibal  was  obliged  to  go  into  exile. 
Nineteen  years  after  Zama,  after  seeking  refuge  first 
with  Antiochus  IH.  of  Syria,  and  then  with  Prusias  of 
Bithynia,  the  peerless  patriot  and  soldier,  being  hunted 
down,  took  poison  to  escape  capture  (183). 

It  must  not  be  forgotten  that  the  Second  Punic  War 
was  a  war  of  one  man  against  a  nation.  Hannibal 
Cause  of  fought  Rome  single-handed.  He  was  quite 
Hannibal's  unsupported  by  his  Government.  Carthage 
failure.         ^^^  ^  ^^^^  ^^   internal   strife.      The   ruling 

families  cultivated  above  all  the  vice  of  jealousy.  No 
help  was  sent  to  Hannibal  in  Italy  for  fear  of  giving  too 
much  glory  and  power  to  his  clan.  But  this  was  not  all. 
By  the  first   Punic  War  (264  241)   Carthage   had  lost 

♦  Livy,  XXX.  20,  6,« 


HANNIBAL 


335 


the  command  of  the  sea.  Even  had  she  wished  it  she 
would  have  had  some  difficulty  in  sending  troops  across 
to  Italy.  She  had  since  the  battle  of  the  Aegates  Islands 
made  no  effort  to  recover  her  naval  power,  and  her  si- 
had  found  her  out. 

Scipio  went  home,  the  war  was  over,  and  CarthaM 
enjoyed  a  respite.    But  she  had  not  learnt  her  lesson 
even  yet.      Faction  continued;   national  de- 
fence was  neglected.    And  so  the  third  and  ?^,  ^„ 
last  Punic  War  was  not  long  delayed,  nor  r*"  ot 
doubtful  when  it  came.     Eome  had  fought  ''*''^«- 
with  Philip  and  Perseus  of  Macedonia,  and  Antiochus 

A  ...^y"**'  ^'"'^  ^™s  mistress  of  Spain,  Greece,  and 
Asia  Minor,  while  Egypt  was  under  her  protectorate. 
She  had  become  an  imperial  city ;  she  had  grown  greedv 
and  proud,  and  would  brook  no  rivals.  Carthage  de- 
livered from  fame  and  empire,  had  concentrated  all'  her 
energies  on  the  acquisition  of  wealth.  What  a  tempting 
prize  how  rich  and  how  defenceless!  Cato  had  seen 
Carthage  and  coveted  it.  He  left  his  Government  no 
peace  with  his  everlasting  refrain :  "  Carthage  must  be 
wiped  out."  The  horse  was  willing  and  gllloped.  1 
pretext  was  soon  found.  Massinissa,  on  a  hint  from 
Rome,  no  doubt  attacked  Carthage.  Carthage  resisted. 
Rome  interfered  with  her  "mailed  fist,"  an  army  of 
80,000  men.  To  save  her  face,  she  offered  terms  to  her 
victim,  but  they  were  iniquitous  and  impossible.  "  Give 
us  three  hundred  hostages."  They  were  given.  "  Give 
us  all  your  arms  and  war  munitions  and  all  your  ships  " 
ihey  also  were  given,  even  200,000  suits  of  armour  < 

Abandon  your  city,  and  build  it  again  ten  miles  from 
Uie  sea.      At  that  the  victim  turned  on  its  aggressor, 
ihe  spirit  of  Carthage  for  once  was  stirred  to  its  depths 
It  performed  wonders  of  self-sacrifice  and  heroism.     But 
It  was  too  late.    True,  the  fall  of  the  city  was  put  off  for 


I 


336 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


three  years,  but  fall  it  did.  In  149  and  148  the  besiegers 
made  no  progress,  and  the  army  was  totally  disorganized 
and  demoralized.  In  147  Scipio  the  younger  *  came  on 
the  scene.  He  quickly  purged  the  camp  of  its  disorders 
and  impurities,  made  the  army  efficient,  and  by  the 
following  spring,  after  incredible  efforts  and  a  marvellous 
display  of  ingenuity  on  both  sides,  the  great  commercial 
city  fell.  The  place  was  levelled  with  the  dust,  and  the 
people  sold  into  slavery.  Carthage  had  stood  for  seven 
centuries;  but  she  had  preferred  wealth  and  ease  to 
service  and  strength,  and  the  price  she  paid  was  to  be 
blotted  out  of  the  map. 

•  Not  by  birth  a  Scipio ;  ho  was  the  son  of  Aemilius  PauUus,  the 
conqueror  of  Macedonia,  and  had  been  adopted  by  the  son  of  the  victor 
of  Zama. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE   WORLD  FINDS   A  MASTER    (CONQUEST    OP   THE 
EAST  AND  THE  WEST  BY  ROME) 

Carthage  was  doomed  at  the  end  of  the  first  of  her  wars 
mth  Rome  (241).    Her  fate  was  sealed  the  moment  she 
acquiesced  m  the  loss  of  her  naval  superiority.  Doom  of 
It  IS  true  the  actual  pulling  down  of  her  walls  Cwhage 
did  not  come  till  close  on  a  century  later,  but  F^ltViluo 
though  she  knew  it  not,  and  perhaps  even  '»^«'-- 
Rome  was  not  fully  conscious  of  it,   throughout   that 
interval  she  was  living  on  sufferance.    Hannibal's  darins 
invasion  of  Italy  was  almost  a  private  unofficial  effort! 
It  did  not  show  that  Carthage  was  strong  and  capable: 
Carthage  had  no  hand  in  it.     It  was  an  astounding 
tour  de  force  but  it  was  in  popular  phrase  entirely  a 
one  man  show."    And  with  one  man,  however  super- 
human,  on  one  side  and  Rome  on  the  other,  the  end  was 
foredoomed.    As  for  the  third  war,  there  too  the  result 
was  never  doubtful.      Carthage    never  had  the    most 
shadowy  chance.    It  was  only  due  to  the  incapacity  of 
the  Roman  commanders  that  she  prolonged  her  resis- 
tance as  long  as  she  did.    There  was  no  sort  of  equality 
be  ween  the  two  belligerent  powers.    Rome  was  playing 
with  her  victim.  f   ^    s 

Rome  then  did  not  need  to  wait  for  the  levelling  of 
Carthage  to  be  recognized  as  a  first-rate  power,  and  long 
betore  the  conclusion  even  of  the  second  Punic  War, 

337 


838 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


when  she  was  still  at  grips  with  Hannibal  on  Italian 
soil,  and  when  she  might  fairly  have  been 
bec'^mes  excused  for  considering  her  hands  full,  she 
a  great  ^yas  deliberately  sending  troops  out  of  Italy, 
^''^^'''  and   asserting  her  claim  to  be  a  power  to 

be  reckoned  with  in  international  poUtics. 

About  a  century  earlier,  when  Alexander  the  Great 
was  capturing  Tyre,  his  mother's  brother,  Alexander 
the  Molossian,  had  crossed  the  Adriatic  into 
Ssfof  Rome  Italy  to  protect  the  Greek  colonies  against 
L^^Tnlnd^^  a  coalition  of  Samnites,  Lucanians,  and 
thePn^idc  Bruttians,  and  had  even  made  an  aUiance 
Wars.  ^.^^  Eome,  then  lately  estabUshed  as  head  of 

Latium,  for  a  joint  attack  on  these  common  enemies  (332). 
Fifty  years  later  another  kinsman  of  the  great  con- 
queror, Pyrrhus,  King  of  Epirus  and,  for  a  few  short 
months,  of  Macedonia  also,  had  likewise  invaded  Italy 
at  the  request  of  Tarentum,  to  defend  it  not  against 
Samnites  but  against  Rome  herself.  The  result  of  that 
venture  we  know.  In  both  instances  the  East  had  gone 
to  seek  the  West.  Eome  was  merely  an  Itahan  state, 
and  acted  entirely  on  the  defensive. 

In  the  interval  between  the  first  and  second  Punic 

Wars  the  situation  had  undergone  a  change.     Rome  had 

Eome  after    challenged  and  defeated   the  greatest  naval 

thTFirst^'^     power  of  the  Western  world,  and  had  wrested 

Punic  War.    ^^^^  Carthage  the  command  of  the  sea.     From 

being  an  Italian  state,  she  had  all   at  once  become  a 

Mediterranean  power,   with  a   strong  navy,   sea-borne 

commerce,    and    extensive    connexions  with    the  wide 

world  around.     Accordingly,  when  the  Illyrian  subjects 

of  Queen  Teuta  chose  to  indulge  their  piratical  instincts 

at  the  expense  of  Roman  and  Rome-bound  merchantmen, 

and  the  Queen  disregarded  diplomatic   representations 

from  the  injured  party,  and  flouted  convention  to  the 


THE   WORLD  FINDS  A  MASTER         339 

extent  of  murdering  ambassadors,  war  was  promptly 
declai-ed  and  effectively  carried  on  (230).  In  less  than  a 
year  Queen  and  pirates  were  humbled.  This  time  the 
West  had  sought  out  the  East. 

The  Illyrian   pirate-war  was   the  first  occasion   on 
which  Rome,  on  her  own  initiative,  came  into  contact 
with  the  East.     Very  insignificant,  you  say.  ^.   ,     . 
Perhaps,  but  it  was   the  grain  of  mustard-  fontL'wUh 
seed,   and   the   branches  that  grew  from  it  ^^®^*st. 
spread  to  the  Nile  and  the  Euphrates.     By  suppressing 
the  Illyrian  pirates    Rome  had   conferred  as  great  a 
benefit  on  Greece  as  on  herself,  and  her  action  won  her 
golden  opinions.     Her  ambassadors  were  feted  up  and 
down   Greece;    Athens    admitted  her  citizens    to    the 
Eleusmian   Mysteries,  and   Corinth   to  competition  in 
the  Isthmian  Games.     Greater  compliments  they  could 
not  pay. 

But  great  as  was  the  gratitude  of  Greece  to  Rome 
and  the  veneration  of  Rome  for  Greece  as  the  home  of 
art  and  learning,  the  course  of  their  relations 
was  not  to  run  smooth.     In  219  the  Illyrians  SiSiip 
found  habit  too  strong  for  their  better  resolu-  ®^  Vaca- 
tions,   and  relapsed   into  piracy.      Kome   in-  ^°'''*' 
stantly  taught  them  a  sharp  lesson,  and  this  time  kept 
the  two  coast  towns,  Apollonia  and  Dyrrhachium,  in  her 
own  hands— for  future  use.      Their  rebellious  leader, 
the  treacherous  Demetrius  of  Pharos,  fled  for  refuge  to 
lung  Philip  of  Macedonia,  and  urged  him   to  punish 
those  impudent  Italians  who  had  dared  to  disturb  the 
world's  peace  and,  worse  still,  to  dethrone  his  Illyrian 
Majesty  and  set  foot  on  Greek,  and  therefore  Macedonian, 
soil!      He  was  spurring  a  wilHng  horse.     Philip  was 
burning  to  do  something  which  would  bring  him  fame 
and  had  not  rejected  the  overtures  of  Hannibal.     Now 
on  the  top  of  Demetrius's  lamentations  came  the  news 


840 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


of  the  battle  of  Cannae  (216),  and  Philip  hesitated  no 
longer.  He  threw  in  his  lot  with  the  triumphant  Car- 
thaginian (215  B.C.),  and  in  the  following  year  lost  no 
time  in  besieging  Apollonia,  one  of  the  towns  on  the 
Adriatic  which  Rome  had  taken  from  the  lUyrian  pirates. 
Thus  arose  the  First  Macedonian  War  (214  b.c). 
Rome  had  begun  to  step  into  Alexander's  place,  and  was 
First  laying  hands  on  the  western  fringe  of  his  suc- 

Macedonian  cessor's   dominions.      She  did   not  wait   for 
'^"-  Philip  to   invade  Italy.     Her  principle  was 

always  to  take  the  offensive  and  seek  out  the  enemy; 
and,  though  Hannibal  was  still  a  constant  threat,  she 
found  means  to  send  troops  into  Greece  to  cope  with  the 
fresh  danger.    With  true  diplomatic  instinct  she  also 
made  use  of  the  materials  which  lay  ready  to  hand  on 
the  enemy's  side  of  the  sea.     Greece  was  bursting  with 
discontent,  and  only  wanted  a  leader.    Rome  headed  a 
coalition  of  the  Aetolian  League— Athens,  Sparta,  and 
Pergamus— and  six  years   later  peace  was  made  with 
Philip,  the  net  result  to  Rome  being  that  she  was  con- 
firmed in  her  possession  of  a  goodly  piece  of  the  Illyrian 
coast.    It  was  a  firm  foothold,  a  convenient  landing-place 
for  troops — in  fact,  an  open  door  into  the  East.     Those 
who  knew  imperial-thinking  Rome  could  see  that  peace 
would  not  last  very  long. 

And  it  did  not.  The  war  had  hurt  Philip  but  little. 
He  was  very  friendly  with  Antiochus,  King  of  Syria- 
Second  which  included  Mesopotamia,  Babylonia,  and 
Macedonian  Persia— and  on  the  death  of  the  King  of  Egypt 
^^^'  the  two  kindred  spirits  began  to  hint  boldly 
at  the  partition  of  that  country.  This  Rome,  in  view 
of  her  treaty  of  alliance  with  Egypt  made  in  273,  could 
not  allow;  and  when  Philip  went  on  to  grasp  at  the 
control  of  the  Aegean  and  the  Black  Sea  corn-trade 
route,  and  even  made  an  unprovoked  attack  on  Athens, 


THE  WORLD  FINDS  A  MASTER         341 

she  declared  war.     The  Second  Macedonian  War  lasted 
from  200  to  194  b.c.     Rome  had  on  her  side  Egypt  and 
all  the  Greek  commercial  states  which  had  anything  to 
fear  from  Philip's  encroachments.     Her  fleets  and  those 
of  her  allies  swept  the  seas.     The  briUiant  young  consul 
Flaminnis,   rolled   the   enemy  back,  took   Thebes,  and 
finally  and  decisively  crushed  Philip  at  Cynoscephalae 
(ly?  B.C.).     This  battle,  which  ended  the  war 
also  proved  that  the  Macedonian  "phalanx''  c%''harae- 
had  had  its  day.     The  thick  column  of  heavy-  ^^iUp 
armed  infantry,  this  time   thirty-two    deep,  '''''^'^* 
armed  with  twenty-four-foot  lances,  was  thrown  into  dis- 
order by  the  hilly  and  broken  ground,  and  was  completely 
at  the  mercy  of  the  lighter  and  quicker  Romans,  fighting 
in  comparatively  open  order.    If  the  compact  mass  could 
be  loosened  anywhere,  or  attacked  in  the  rear,  it   was 
powerless.     Yet  the  lesson  was  forgotten  in  the  Middle 
Ages,  and  Leopold  of  Austria  had  to  be  taught  it  all 
again  on  the  field  of  Sempach  (a.d.  1386)  by  Arnold  von 
Winkelried.     Philip  had  been  well  beaten,  and  agreed  to 
a  peace  (196  b.c),  which  involved  the  loss  of  all  his  pos- 
sessions  in  Greece,  Thrace,  Asia  Minor,  and  the  islands. 
The  cynics  were  disappointed :   the  Roman  victory  did 
not  spell  merely  a  change  of  masters.     To  the  utter 
astonishment  of  all,  Flaminius  ofiicially  declared  Greece 
free,  and  every  Roman  soldier  was  withdrawn. 

Meanwhile  Antiochus,   self-styled   "the    Great,"   of 
Syria,  having  deferred  helping  his  ally  till  it  was  too 
late,  now  ostentatiously  rushed  into  the  fray,   .    . 
when  he  could  be  of  no  earthly  use  to  Philip,'  thf  Gre^T 
nor  Philip  to  him.     His  interference,  which  ^'"^s^®^- 
might  have  made  things  very  uncomfortable  for  Rome 
five  years  earlier,  was  foredoomed  to  failure.     In  192  he 
landed  in  Greece,  where  he  had  a  certain  number  of  un- 
important  allies,  including  the   Boeotians,   who   seem 


ff! 


342 


THE    ANCIENT  WORLD 


always  to  have  sided  with  invaders  of  Greece ;  but  he  left 
numerous  enemies  behind  him,  nearer  home.    Bithynia, 
Pergamus,  Rhodes,  Egypt  were  all  ranged  on  the  side  of 
Rome.     In  Europe  even  his  former  ally,  Philip,  was 
now  compelled  to  help  the  enemy.    In  the  following  year 
(191),  the  would-be  Xerxes,  attempting  to  play  the  part 
of  Leonidas,  was  thoroughly  beaten  by  a  Roman  army  at 
Thermopylae,   and   retired    ignominiously   to   Ephesus. 
The  invasion  had  utterly  failed.     The  Romans  followed 
up  their  success  and  pursued  the  fugitive  into  his  own 
country.     They  destroyed  his   fleet   at    Myonnesus  in 
Lydia,  while  a  moderate  force,  under  Lucius  Scipio  and 
his  brother,  the  famous  Africanus,  annihilated  Antiochus's 
enormous    and    heterogeneous    army    near    Magnesia, 
under  Mount  Sipylus.     The  "  Great  King  "  fled,  leavmg 
over  fifty  thousand  dead  on  the  field  (190  b.c),  and  in 
the  next'year  signed  a  humiliating  peace. 

Syria*  had  seen  its  most  prosperous  days.     Out  of 

part  of  the  spoils  of  war  Rome  created  a  strong  kingdom 

of  Pergamus,  in  Western  Asia  Minor,  to  act 

Pergamus.     ^^  ^  buffer-state  between  east  and  west,  and, 

one  suspects,  to  be  a  thorn  in  the  side  of  Syria.^ 

The  new  creation  proved  a  useful  provocative,  not  to 
Syria,  which  was  too  weak  to  move,  but  to  Macedonia, 
Third  ^^^^^^^'  ^^^^^  Philip's  death  (179  b.c),  had  been 

Macedonian  recovering  power  under  his  son  Perseus.  Act- 
'^*'-  ing    on   information    supplied   by   Eumenes, 

King  of  Pergamus,  Rome  declared  war  on  Perseus 
(171  B.C.).  The  first  two  campaigns  went  entirely  against 
the  Romans,  but  Perseus  in  this  evidently  owed  more  to 
luck  than  to  ability,  for  in  the  next  and  following  years 
he  lost,  through  stinginess  and  indolence,  every  oppor- 
tunity of  raising  Greece  against  his  foes,  and  in  the  cam- 
paign against  the  consul  PhiHppus,  showed  himself 
incompetent  and  pusillanimous.     In   168   b.c.  he  was 


THE  WORLD  FINDS  A   MASTER         343 

cornered  and  forced   to   fight  at    Pydna  by  Aemilius 
Paullus.     Once  more,   as  at  Cynoscephalae,  End  of  the 
the  ''phalanx"  was  undone  by  rapid  move-  "pi^aianx." 
ment  over  uneven  ground.     The  more  easily  handled 
Romans  penetrated  into  the  gaps  and  cut  down  the 
pikemen,  who  were  entangled  in  their  huge,  unwieldy 
weapons.     Three  thousand   of  them   died   where   they 
stood.     The  "  phalanx  "  had  made  its  last  appearance  in 
ancient  warfare.    Perseus's  army  was  completely  routed  : 
the  king  himself  fled,  was  captured,  adorned  the  consul's 
triumph  in  Rome,  and  died  in  obscurity  at  Alba.     The 
Third  Macedonian  War  (171-168  b.c.)  was  at  an  end, 
and  so  was  the  kingdom  of  Macedonia.    The  country  was 
split  into  four  republics,  subject  to  Rome. 

With  Macedonia  replaced  by  Rome,  the  sequel  was 
not  difficult  to  foresee.    Greece  must  sooner  or  later  be 
swept  into  the  net.    The  rise  of  a  pretender  in 
Macedonia  led  to  the  conversion  of  the  republics  deJt^oyed : 
into  a  Roman  province  (148  b.c),  and  immedi-  ^^^®<^®  . 
ately  after,  foolish  ambition  and  civil  strife  in  piovmce  of 
the  Peloponnese  brought  in  Rome  as  the  "  big  ^^'^^'^onia. 
policeman,"  who  ''pacified"  the  country  by  dissolving 
the  confederacies,   and   razing   Corinth   to   the  ground 
(146  B.C.).     The  restless  and  ungovernable  country  had, 
thanks  to  Rome's  forbearance  and  veneration  for  its  past* 
been  given  ''  one  more  chance."     But  it  was  incorrigible! 
Flaminius,  in  196  b.c,  had   in  most  dramatic  fashion 
declared  Greece  free :   Mummius,  in  146  b.c,  made  it  a 
subordinate  part  of  the  province  of  Macedonia  ! 

Rome   had   taken   a   firm    step   eastwards.     It   was 
certain  she  would  ere  long  take  another.     The  peace  of 
189  B.C.,  following  on  the  futile  provocation  of  Decay  of 
Rome  by  Antiochus,  and  his  disastrous  defeat,  ^y"*- 
had  dealt  Syria  a  blow  from  which  it  never  recovered. 
The  king  had  fled,  and  his  authority  had  vanished  with 


344 


THE   ANCIENT  WORLD 


him.  Syria  was  the  "  Sick  Man  "  of  those  days.  The 
history  of  Western  Asia  in  the  last  two  centuries  b.c. 
was  not  unhke  that  of  the  Balkan  Peninsula  in  modern 
times.  The  central  government  weakened,  and  province 
after  province  fell  away.  Every  fresh  unsuccessful  war 
brought  fresh  loss  of  territory.  Just  as  Bulgaria,  Ru- 
mania and  Servia  were  carved  out  of  European  Turkey, 
so  Syria,  which  once  extended  from  the  Dardanelles  to 
the  Persian  Gulf  and  the  Dead  Sea,  had  lost  all  Asia  Minor, 
Armenia,  Palestine,  and  the  far  eastern  provinces  about 
Persia,  which  had  fallen  into  the  hands  of  the  Parthians. 
The  star  of  the  Seleucids  clearly  was  setting.  Seleucus  II. 
(246-226)  had  run  away  without  a  blow,  and  allowed 
Egypt  to  overrun  his  territory  in  Syria.  His  son,  Anti- 
ochus  "  The  Great,"  had  been  unsuccessful  in  every  war 
he  undertook,  against  Egypt,  against  the  Parthians,  and 
against  Rome.  And  now,  when  Antiochus  IV.,  Epi- 
phanes,  "The  Illustrious,"  also  named  in  punning 
derision  Epimanes,  "  The  Madman,"  was  on  the  verge 
of  conquering  Egypt,  Rome  stepped  in  to  save  her  ally, 
and  cried  "  Hands  off !  " 

Nor  was  this  all.     External   failure   brought   in  its 

wake,   as  it  always  does,   internal  upheaval   and  civil 

strife.     Since  the  formation  of  Alexander  the 

Antwchus      (.j.g^^,g  empire,  the  Jews  had  been  ruled  by 

presses  the  their  High  Priests,  who  formed  a  dynasty 
^^^^  reigning  at  Jerusalem,  and,  from  their  luckless 

geographical  position,  alternately  under  the  heel  of 
Syrian,  Seleucid,  and  Egyptian  Ptolemy.  They  were 
between  the  upper  and  the  nether  millstone,  and  it  is  a 
fine  testimony  to  the  national  vitaUty  and  force  of  cha- 
racter that  they  survived  as  they  did.  Egypt  placed  a 
garrison  in  Jerusalem:  Syria  removed  it.  For  this 
Antiochus  III.,  "  The  Great,"  was  hailed  as  a  deliverer. 
But  Antiochus  IV.,  "the  Madman,"  returning  foiled 


I 

-I 


THE  WORLD  FINDS  A  MASTER 


345 


from  Egypt,  at  Rome's  bidding,  full  of  bitterness,  no 
doubt,  and  looking  about  for  a  scapegoat  on  which  to 
vent  his  feelings,  heard  that  Jerusalem  had  had  the 
audacity  to  rise  against  his  own  nominee  in  the  High 
Priesthood.  No  further  excuse  was  required.  If  he 
could  not  pillage  Alexandria,  at  least  he  would  sack 
Jerusalem.  The  rebelliousness  of  the  Jews  was  put 
down  to  the  account  of  their  pernicious  superstition, 
which  accordingly  must  be  extirpated.  And  so  "The 
Madman  "  became  a  persecutor,  bent  on  rooting  up  an 
obnoxious  religion. 

But  he  had  underestimated  the  difficulty  of  his  task. 
In  all  countries  and  ages  Hodge  is  slower  at  learning 
and  therefore  at  changing  than  his  Cockney  The 
cousin.  The  most  obstinate  stronghold  of  con-  Maccabees, 
servatism  is  the  peasantry.  It  might  be  possible  for  the 
persecutor  to  cajole  or  intimidate  the  Jerusalem  popula- 
tion into  apostasy ;  but  a  "  stiff-necked  race  "  indeed  was 
still  bred  in  the  villages.  At  Modin,  in  Judaea,  the 
king's  emissary  was  cut  down  by  the  old  priest  Matta- 
thiah,  and  his  live  stalwart  sons  became  the  leaders  of 
the  popular  discontent.  They  were  known  as  the  As- 
monaeans,  that  is,  the  sons  of  Asmonaeus  (Hebrew, 
Ashmunai).  The  peasants  armed  and  carried  on  a 
highly  successful  guerilla  warfare,  for  were  they  not 
in  a  mountainous  and  difficult  country  of  which  they 
knew  every  inch  ?  The  eldest,  Jonathan,  was  the  diplo- 
matist of  the  family,  while  Judas,  the  second,  was  the 
man  of  action,  a  born  leader  of  men,  and  a  hard  hitter, 
who  very  soon  earned  the  surname  of  Maccabaeus,  or 
**  The  Hammer,"  with  as  good  a  right  as  Charles  Martel 
or  our  own  Edward  I.,  "  the  Hammer  of  the  Scots." 

The  nationalist  rising  of  the  Asmonaeans  was  favoured 
by  circumstances  :  Syria  was  torn  by  dissension.  Anti- 
ochus's  troops  were  defeq^ted  more  than  once,  Jerusalem 


346 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


was  occupied,  the  Temple  cleansed  and  re-dedicated 
(1C)5  or  164  B.C.),  and  the  new  movement  and  its  leaders 
officially  recognized  by  treaty.  After  twenty  years  of 
struggle,  in  which  his  four  brothers  had  lost  their  lives, 
the  last  survivor,  Simon,  was  installed  as  High  Priest 
and  Prince  of  a  diminished  but  restored  nation,  with 
complete  religious  and  considerable  political  liberty. 
Simon  was  assassinated  in  135  u.c,  but  the  dynasty  of 
Asmonaeans  continued  till  its  feeble  last  representative, 
John  Hyrcanus,  was  deposed  and  executed  by  Augustus, 
to  make  room  for  the  Edomite  Herod  the  Great  (30  b.c). 
Evidently  the  task  of  governing  Asia  was  too  much 
for  the  degenerate  house  of  Seleucus,  and  Ptome  was  only 

Mithridates.  ^^^^^^^    ^^^^   ^^   Opportunity   to   snatch    the 
'  sceptre  from  its  nerveless  grasp.     The  wished- 
for  opportunity  was  provided  by  the  ambition  of  Mithri- 
dates, King  of  Pontus.     The  ''  sick  man,"  Syria,  fared  no 
better  in  the  north  than  in  the  south ;  the  whole  head 
was  sick,  and  the  whole  heart  faint.     It  was  hardly  to 
be  expected  that,  while  all  around  him  in  Asia  Minor 
new  kingdoms  had  been  carved  out  of  that  unresisting 
mass  called  Syria,  IMithridates  should  remain  contented 
with  the  diminutive  piece  of  country  known  from  its 
position  as  "  The  Seaboard,"  or  Pontus.     This  wonderful 
man,  one   of   the  most   remarkable  figures  in   ancient 
history,  with  his  extraordinary  vigour  of  body  and  mind, 
and  ambition  equal  to  his  capacity,  with  a  memory  which 
could  make  him  a  master  of  twenty-five  languages,  and 
a   military   genius   which    could    baffle   Rome's    ablest 
generals  for  over  fifteen   years,  naturally   felt   himself 
"  cabin'd,  cribb'd,  confin'd,"  in  his  legitimate  dominions, 
and  cast  a  covetous  eye  across  his  frontiers. 

He  came  to  the  throne  in  120,  and  was  no  doubt 
kept  informed  about  Rome's  struggle  with  Jugurtha  and 
the  Gauls ;  but  he  stayed  his  own  hand  till  the  imperial 


THE   WORLD  FINDS   A  MASTER         347 

city  was  in  the  throes  of  the  Social  War  (91-88  r,.c.). 
Then  he  struck.     He  expelled  his  neighbours,  the  kings 
of    Cappadocia  and    Bithynia,   and    in  close  j^^^^ 
alliance  with  Tigranes,  King  of  Armenia,  his  Mithridatic 
son-in-law,    defied    Rome    (91-89    b.c).      It  ^*^' 
was  not  till  nearly  thirty  years  later,  after  three  wars, 
that    the    Western    republic    prevailed.      In    the    first 
(88-84  L.c.)  he  occupied  the  Roman  province  of  Asia, 
massacred     80,000     Romans    and    Italians,    and     like 
Antiochus  the  Great,  sent  an  army  across  into  Greece, 
where  it  seized  and  fortified  Athens  under  Archelaus ; 
Sulla's  legions,  however,  took  Athens,  and  routed  the 
invaders   at   Chaeronea    (86  b.c),  and   at  Orchomenus 
(85),  while  Roman  troops  also  gained  successes  in  Asia. 
Peace  was  made,  but  did  not  last  long,  being  broken 
by  an  unauthorized  raid  by  the  governor  Murena,  into 
Pontus.      This   was,    however,    immediately 
stopped,  and  scarcely  deserves  the  name  of  andTMrd 
Second   Mithridatic   War    often   given   to    it  Mithridatic 
(83  B.C.).     The  third  war  broke  out  in  74  b.c, 
and  lasted  till  65  b.c.     Tigranes  of  Armenia  had  seized 
the  decrepit  kingdom  of  Syria.     In  alliance  with  him  and 
with  Sertorius,  the  rebel  leader  in  Spain,  Mithridates 
seized  Bithynia,  which  had  just  been  bequeathed  by  its 
last   king   to  Rome.     The  Roman  commanders  at  first 
were  Lucullus  and  Cotta.     Step  by  step,  Mithridates  was 
driven  eastwards  into  Pontus,  till  being  beaten  at  Cabira, 
he  fled  into  Armenia.     Three  years  later,  after  settling 
Pontus,  Lucullus  started  in  pursuit,  crossed  the  Euphrates, 
took  Tigranocerta  with  immense  spoil,  and  plunged  into 
the  mountains  near  Artaxata.     Before  he  could  reach  his 
goal  and  crown  his  labours,  Lucullus  was  forced  by  mutiny 
in  the  field  and  unworthy  intrigues  at  home  to  retrace  his 
steps.     Pompey,  the  popular  idol  of  the  hour,  fresh  from 
his  victories  over  Sertorius,  the  slaves,  and  the  pirates, 


348 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


became  eommauder-in-ehief  of  the  forces  in  the  East 

SuSidate,  ■*^*'  "•''■^-  '^^''**  '^'"^  y^'''  l^^'thridates,  who 
■  was  now  sixty-six,  surrounded  on  all  sides  by 
treachery,  fled  to  the  Crimea,  intending  like  Hannibal  to 
ead  an  army  overland  into  Italy.  But  treason  pursued 
him  there,  and  in  despair  he  took  his  life  tliree  years 
later. 

Pompey  remained  some  years  ranging  at  will  with 
his  armies  over  the  East,  and  organizing  it  as  a  part  of 
Pompey's      tbe  Roman   dominions.    The  last   Seleucid 
oTthrEaVt    A"«o«h»«    XIII.,    was    deposed,   and    Syria 
I'ecame  a  Roman   province.    Jerusalem  was 
taken  after  a  three  months'  siege,  and  the  last  of  the 
Asmonaeans  or  Maccabees  became  a  feeble  puppet  in 
the  liands  of  Rome.    Bithynia,  Pontus,  and  Crete  were 
added  to  the  provinces,  while  Commagene,  Cappadocia, 
ami    Lesser     Armenia    became    vassal-kingdoms,    and 
ligranes  did  homage  for  the  crown  of  Greater  Armenia, 
lompey  even   made  the  Parthians  respect  the  Roman 
definition  of  the  Armenian  frontier,  but  did  not  attempt 
any  real  conquest  of  their  country.    Egypt  which,  under 
the  Macedonian  rule  of  the  Ptolemies  had  always  been 
friendly  to  Rome,  continued  in  the  position  of  a  Roman 
protectorate  which  it  had  accepted  in  108  u.c. 

Thus  after  the  lapse  of  two  and  a  half  centuries  the 
whole  of  Alexander  the  Great's  empire,  with  the  sole 
Borne  exception  of  the  portion  beyond  the  Tigris 

Se  Eas?  "^  ^'""'^  ^^''  incorporated  in  the  Roman  dominions! 
Pompey  returned  home  in  time  to  form  with 
Juhus  Caesar  and  Crassus  the  famous  First  Triumvi- 
rate, and  to  play  his  fateful  part  in  the  great  civil  war 
which  transformed  the  Republic  into  an  Empire.  (See 
Chapter  XX.)  *^ 


THE  WORLD  FINDS  A  MASTER         349 


XL 

The  story  of  the  sulijugation  of  the  West  is  shorter 
and  simpler.    At  the  end  of  the  first  of  her  Punic  Wars 
Rome  possessed  Western  Sicily,  and  after  the  ^ 
battle  of  Zama,  besides   the  whole  of  that  KHn 
island,   she  owned   Spain   divided  into    two  ^J"'"- 
provinces,  while  the  Numidian  chiefs  were  under  her 
protection.    All  these  acquisitions  were,  of  course,  the 
spoil  of  Carthage.    But  though  Spain  was  nominally 
two  Roman  provinces,  it  was  by  no  means  properly  sub 
jugated.    Celtiberians  and  Lusitanians  in  their  mountain 
fastnesses    gave    endless    trouble    till    the    propraetor 
Gracchus  conciliated  them  by  kind  and  politic  measures 
mt  Gracchus  s   successors  were    less  reasonable,  and 
uiilieeded  complaints    grew  into  the   Celtiberian  War 
{loS-U3  B.C.),  which  lasted  for  twenty  years.    Roman 
commanders   were   several    times   guilty  of   the  most 
atrocious    treachery.      The   Spanish  patriot  Viriathus 
roused  the  Lusitanians  and  other  tribes,  and  for  nine 
years  defied   Rome,   repeatedly  defeating  her  legions 
And  then  a  Roman  general  was  found  to  bribe  some 
Lusitanians,  and  the  hero  fell  by  the  assassin's  knife 
(140  B.C.).    Bad  faith  continued  as  a  regular  weapon  in 
Rome  s  armoury  ;  promises  were  broken  and  advantages 
gained,  but   still  defeats  continued,  coming  for  seven 
years  more,   until   Scipio  Africanus   the  younger    the 
destroyer  of  Carthage,  took  and  burnt  Numantia'  and 
put  an  end  to  all  resistance  (133  is.c). 

The   Spanish   provinces  remained  fairly   cmiet   for 
fifty  years,   until  (83    b.c.)  the   Roman    Sertorius,  the 
friend    of    the    revolutionary    Marius,   being 
driven  out  of  Rome,  made  himself  master  of  *"■*"""'• 
the  country,  where   he  attempted  to  establish  a  rival 


350 


rp 


THE  ANCIENT   WORLD 


goveniineiit  to  that  which  sat  at  Rome.  At  tlie  head 
of  his  Roiuanizod  8i)aniards  he  defied  Rome  for  ten 
years  till  he  too,  hke  Viriathus,  was  removed  by 
murder  (7'i  n.c  ).  This  war,  hke  the  Mithridatic,  was 
brought  to  ail  end  by  Pompey,  and  Spain  was  no 
more  heard  of  till  the  great  civil  war  twenty-six  years 
later,  when  Caesar  fought  at  Munda  (40  li.c.)  the  hardest 
battle  of  his  life,  to  crush  the  last  remnants  of  Pompey's 
party. 

The  destruction  of  Carthage  (14()  u.c.)  and  formation 
of  its  territory  into  the  province  of  Africa,  was  followed 
Africa.  ^^  generation  later  by  the  disgraceful  war  with 

WarwUh  Jugurtha,  King  of  Numidia  (110  b.c).  The 
^^^^  **  senatorial  government,  by  this  time  utterly 
corrupt,  allowed  Jugurtha*s  vast  wealth  to  cover  both  his 
misdeeds  and  their  own  and  to  spin  out  the  affair 
shamelessly,  until,  the  people  growing  indignant  and 
impatient,  their  nominee,  Marius,  fniished  the  war,  and 
the  captive  Jugurtha  was   executed  in  the   Tullianum 

(100   B.C.). 

Last,  but  by  no  means  least,  the  subjugation  of  Gaul 
came  as  the  final  link  to  complete  the  chain  of  conquests 
which  made  the  ^Mediterranean  a  Roman  lake. 
It  would  be  a  mistake  to  suppose,  however, 
that  Gaul  only  came  within  the  horizon  of  Rome  during  the 
closing  century  of  the  great  Republic.  On  the  contrary, 
Gallic  tribes  had  spread  not  only  over  the  country  now 
called  France  but  also  over  most  of  modern  Switzerland,  the 
Alps,  and  Northern  Italy  as  far  south  as  the  44th  degree  of 
latitude,  that  is  along  a  line  from  Spezia  to  Rimini,  and 
came  quite  early  into  contact  with  the  rising  city  of  the 
Tiber. 

In  the  first  trial  of  strength  the  honours  remained 
with  the  Gauls.  In  420  b.c.  their  ''  land-hunger  "  began 
to  make  itself  felt ;  in  390  they  defeated  the  Etruscans, 


The  Gauls. 


THE   WORLD  FINDS  A  MASTER 


351 


Sentinum. 


and   six  years   later  70,000  of   them  under  Brennus— 
(prol)ably    a   title    meaning   "  Iving ")— annihilated    the 
Romans  at  the  river  Allia  (390  b.c.)  and  burnt  Retrospect  : 
Rome,  all  but  the  Capitol,  which  was  saved  by  ^*^^y  ^?^*- 
loaves  and  geese  and  Manlius.     The  story  of  Eome.^^^^ 
lirennus's    contemptuous    "  Vae   Victis !  "    is  ^^®  ^^^^*- 
familiar  ;    no  sooner  were  the  words  out  of  his  mouth 
than  Camillus  appeared  on  the  scene,  drove  the  invaders 
off  and  cut  them  up.      He  followed  up  this  lesson   by 
another  when  he  routed  a  Gallic  army  at  Alba  in  307. 
But  defeats  had  little  effect  on  their  huge  numbers  and 
extraordinary  vitality,  and  they  continued  for  another 
century  and  a  half  to  be  dangerous  neighbours.      They 
imperilled  Rome's  existence  once  more  by  joining  her 
enemies  at  Sentinum  (295  b.c.)  in  the  great 
Samnite  war.     For  a   time  there  was  j^eace 
while  some  of  their  restless  energy  was  diverted  to  Greece, 
where  another  Brennus,  with  over  two  hundred  thousand 
horse  and  foot,  forced  the  pass  of  Thermopylae  (279  b.c) 
but  was  repulsed  at  Delphi.      But  Rome  did  not   feel 
secure,  and  Ariminum  was  founded  as  a  frontier-fortress 
to  watch  the  Gauls   and   keep  them   at   arm's  length 
(208  B.C.). 

Precautions  were  not  superfluous.     During  the  next 
fifty  years  war  was  constantly  breaking  out  afresh.     At 
one  time  there  was  even  a  rumour  that  the  Gauls  from 
beyond  the  Alps  were  coming  to   help  their  brethren. 
But  in  225  b.c  the  Romans  won  a  crushing  victory  at 
Telamon    in   Etruria,   forty   thousand  Gauls 
being  left  on  the  field,  and   Cisalpine   Gaul,  ^'^*°'°''' 
Gaul  south  of  the  Alps,  was  subdued  (222  b.c).    But 
the  work  was  only  half  done.   When  Hannibal 
came,  and  won  at  the  Ticinus  and  the  Trebia,  ^*'^'^*^' 
the  Cisalpine  Gauls  joined  him  to  a  man.     After  his  fall 
at  Zama  (202   b.c.)    their    resistance    collapsed.     They 


352 


THE   ANCIENT  WOBLD 


Gaul  a 
Roman 
Province. 


vince, ' 
Gallia  Nar 
bonensis, 
formed. 


were  given  good  terms,  and,  with  the  help  of  several 
Cisai  ine  g'^^^'ison-towns  and  good  mihtary  roads,  formed 
into  a  strong,  well-organized  and  loyal  depen- 
dency, which  would  act  as  a  valuable  protection 
against  invasion  from  the  north  (181  li.c). 
This  may  be  taken  as  the  conclusion  of  the  first  stage 
in  the  relations  of  Eome  with  the  Gauls. 

The  second  period  (from  154  to  101  b.c.)  is  concerned 
with  Gaul  beyond  the  Alps,  and  includes  the  formation 
The  "Pro-  oi  a  province  and  the  repulse  of  a  threatened 
invasion  of  barbarians.  As  so  often  happened, 
a  friend's  difficulty  was  Eome's  opportunity. 
The  ancient  and  flourishing  Greek  colony  of 
Massiha  (Marseilles),  which  had  an  alliance  with  the 
Romans,  asked  them  for  assistance  against  Gallic  raiders. 
The  invitation  was  accepted  with  alacrity ;  the  raiders 
were  subdued,  and  Eome  having  her  foot  in  the  door 
kept  it  open.  When  Spain  became  a  Roman  province 
(133  B.C.)  it  was  quite  obvious  that  Gaul  must  follow 
suit  sooner  or  later,  if  only  to  provide  an  overland  trade- 
route,  and,  in  fact,  by  slow  but  sure  steps,  the  country 
on  both  sides  of  the  Rhone  was  subdued,  colonies  founded, 
roads  made,  and  /the  land  from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Alps 
became  the  province  of  GaUia  Narbonensis,  or  simply 
Provincia,  *'  The  Province,"  which  name  it  still  bears  — 
Provence. 

But  every  fresh  acquisition  of  territory  was  a  fresh 
invitation  to  covetous  neighbours  and  addition  to  Rome's 
The  Cim-       vulnerability.     Vast  bodies  of  Cimbrians  and 

brians  and     Teutons,  with  no  address,  were  out  "  house- 
Teutons.  T  J  •  »  »  T     ,  1  ,  . 

huntmg,    and  the  newly-created  ''Province 
seemed  a  decidedly  desirable  residence.     There  was  un- 
rest in  the  air  behind  the  Alps :  a  landless  nation  in 
arms  was  knocking  at  the  door,  a  forcible  reminder  to 
the  Romans  that  there  were  other  people  in  the  world 


THE   WORLD  FINDS  A  MASTER         853 


besides  them— (five  centuries  later  they  did  not  knock, 
they  walked  in).  The  Roman  forces  suffered  repeated 
defeats  culminating  in  the  rout  of  Arausio  (Orange) 
wliere  eighty  thousand  legionaries  were  left  on  the  field. 
Piome  was  stirred.  The  barbarians,  flushed  with  victory, 
were  advancing  in  two  gigantic  columns  on  Italy.  But 
they  met  their  match.  Marius,  fresh  from  the  conquest 
at  Jugurtha,  annihilated  the  one  at  Aquae  Sextiae  (Aix- 
en-Provence)  and  the  other  at  Yercellae,  and  the  northern 
peril  ceased  to  exist  (101  e.g.). 

But  the  third  and  last  act  was  both  the  most  dramatic 
and  the  most  fruitful  of  results  to  European  history. 
Gaius  Julius  Caesar,  afterwards  the  great  Dicta-  j^y^g 
tor,  for  reasons  of  his  own  which  will  appear  in  Caesar  in 
another  chapter,  obtained  the  Governorship  of  ^^^^' 
Gaul  on  both  sides  of  the  Alps  at  first   for  five  and 
eventually  for  ten  years  (59   b.c).     What   did  he  find 
there  ?    Cisalpine  Gaul  had  been  organized  as  a  regular 
province,  the  portion  of  it  south  of  the  Po  being  actually 
treated  as  part  and  parcel  of  Italy  with  the  full  Roman 
franchise.     All  was  quiet  here.     On  the  other  side  of  the 
Alps,  the  tribes  in  the  interior  of  Gaul  were  exercising 
the  right  of  brothers  to  quarrel,  while  others  were  still 
unsettled   themselves   and    unsettling   the   rest    of   the 
world  by  their  search  for  a  home,  and,  most  serious  of 
all,  the  Germans  were  threatening  to  cross  the  Rhine. 
Caesar  cut  up  and  drove  the  roving  Helvetii  back  into 
Switzerland,  pushed  the  German  Ariovistus  back  into  his 
native  forests,  and  made  the  Rhine  the  boundary  of  Gaul, 
subdued  the  Belgae  on  the  north-east  and  the  Veneti  on 
the   north-west,   and   even   found   time   for    two    short 
expeditions  to  Britain  (55  and  54  e.g.).     He  also  bridged 
the  Rhine  and  made  a  military  demonstration  on  its  east 
bank  to  intimidate  the  Germans. 

But  it  was  in  his  last  two  or  three  years  that  his 

2a 


354 


THE  ANCIExNT  WOULD 


powers  were  most  severely  tested  and  the  success  of  his 
veroinge.  coi^uest  definitely  assured.  The  Cariiutes  rose 
rn  V  .  .  .'^''^^ac'ed  the  Romans  at  Cenabum 
ro,*!  r/1'  '^'^V w-^''""^  ^'■^■*^™'''"  prince  Vercingetorix 
eZ  fo.     ^f '°  '^"r'  ^''  <'°""'ry'^e»  to  a  desperate 

m  thiee  divisions  on  the  eastern  frontier  between  the 

visit  to  Italy  found  that  all  the  west  and  centre  of  Gaul 
^^•ere  in  revolt,  and  the  southern  "  Province  "  in  danger 
of  an  invasion,  while  the  tribes  between  him  and  his 
kgons  could  not  be  trusted.    It  was  a  dilemma,  but  hi 
mind    was  (juickly  made   up.    Hurrying  through   the 

It  in  a  state  of  defence :  then  unexpectedly  crossin^r  the 
Cevennes  m  the  depth  of  winter  he  took  the  Arverni 
completely  by  surprise,  and  drew  Vercingetorix  down  to 

east  across   he  Rhone  into  the  northern  extremity  of  the 

ments,  and  with  them  marched  rapidly  due  north  to  join 
his  egions,  which  he  now  concentrated  in  the  lan^  of 
the  Lingones  (Langres). 

Events  moved  rapidly.  Vercingetorix  was  besiegiii<r 
Gorgobina,  near  the  confluence  of  the  Allier  and  th^ 
Loire  Caesar  marched  south  to  its  relief,  burning 
Cenabum  on  the  way  to  punish  its  massacl-e  of  ! 
Roman  residents,   and    Vercingetorix,   finding    himself 

wS  Z  ""if  .  ^f-  ^''  ^"''  determined  to  adopt 
fh.,  •  fu     n^  ,  '^'''''-      ^^'"^    self-sacrificing    en- 

ntoT'hoir  "^'t  *""'  ''  *""■"  '^--^  -™  -""try 
Tvaricum  /r  f ''"'''^ '  '"'"'''^  *°^™^  ^^^^"'^  burnt". 
wTr/^  ^'^^^  r'  '^'''"^'  ^^^y  had  not  the 
heart  to  destroy  it.    But  Caesar  promptly  besieged  it 

and  after  a  hard  struggle,  which  i^veal  d  L  ingenuity 


THE   WORLD  FINDS  A  MASTER         355 

and  devotion  of  which  the  Gauls  were  capable,  took  it 
and  massacred  its  forty  thousand  inhabitants.  Caesar 
we  know,  was  not  by  nature  cruel ;  he  hoped  to  strike 
terror  into  the  rebels  and  shorten  the  war.  But  Ver- 
cingetorix was  undaunted.  He  went  south,  up  the  Allier 
into  his  own  country,  and  took  up  a  strong  position  on 
the  mil  of  Gergovia  (near  Clermont  Eerrand) 
from  which  all  Caesar's  efforts  failed  to  dislodge  °"^'"'''^- 
hini.  The  moral  effect  of  this  check  was  tremendous 
and  immediate.  Even  the  faithful  Aedui  revolted,  and 
Caesar  was  obliged  to  turn  his  back  on  Gergovia  to 
deal  with  this  fresh  danger.  This  drew  him  north- 
east towards  his  original  base  in  the  country  round 
Langres. 

Vercingetorix  followed,  and  a  general  council  was 
held  at  Bibracte   (Autuii)  in  the  very  centre  of  Gaul 
at  which  he  was  unanimously  elected  com-  Aiesia-  the' 
niander-in-chief.      The   "  Province  "   was    to  Po^'ioi"- 
be   invaded.    Caesar,   marching  south  to  save  it,   was 
attacked  by  Vercingetorix,  who,  however,  was  repulsed 
and  made  the  mistake  of  his  life  by  retiring  into  Aiesia 
(Ahse-Ste.-Reine).     The    position,   a  steep   hill   (Mont 
Auxois)  closely  bound  in  on  two   sides   by  the   rivers 
Ose  and  Oserain,   was  immensely  strong,  but  so  was 
Caesar's  determination.      Guerilla  warfare  might  have 
prolonged  the  struggle  indefinitely;    but   here  he   felt 
that  he  had  his  enemy  concentrated  and  cornered.     The 
struggle  was    tremendous.     Each  side  felt   that  they 
must  win  now  or  never.     There  were  80,000  Gauls 
on  the  hill  with  food  for  thirty  days.    Caesar  collected 
all  his  available  troops  and  surrounded  the  place  com- 
pletely with  lines  ten   miles   long,   strengthened  with 
twenty-three  forts.     Vercingetorix  sent  out  a  desperate 
appeal  for  help  and  a  vast  relieving  army,  250,000  strong, 
came  to  the  rescue.    But  Caesar  had  surrounded  his 


356 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


troops    with    exterior    lines,   twelve    miles    iii    circum- 
ference. 

The  besieging  lines  on  the  level  ground  were  most 
elaborate;     modern     barbed-wire     entanglements     are 
fngUne^'    child's-play  to  them.    There  was  a  twenty-foot 
'      ditch  with  vertical  sides,  and,  four  hundred 
feet  behind,  a  twelve-foot  ditch  and  earthwork  crowned 
with  a   strong   stockade    with    towers    at  intervals   of 
eighty  feet,  and  protected  by  strong  cJicmux  dc.  frise  • 
while  the  intervening  ground  between  the  first  ditch  and 
the  stockaded  earthwork  contained  two  more  fifteen-foot 
trenches,  one  filled  with  water,  five  rows  of  sunk  and 
intertwmed  tree   trunks,   with  boughs   cut   to  a  point 
eight  rows  of  pits  with  concealed  wooden  spikes  three 
^et  apart,  and  innumerable  rows  of  half-sunk  iron  hooks 
This  on  the  side  facing  the  hill ;  and,  when  the  relieving 
army  was  expected,  tlie  same  precautions  were  taken  on 
the  other  side  to  protect  the  legions  from  an  attack  in 
the  rear.     Caesar  was  taking  no  risks ! 

The  horrors  began ;  food  ran  short  on  the  hill.  One 
chief  i)roposed  recourse  to  cannibalism.  He  was  out- 
Horrors  Voted,  but.  Scarcely  less  terrible,  to  make  the 
blockade  ^^PPlies  last  longer,  the  whole  of  the  non- 
combatant  population  were  driven  outside  the 
walls,  and  left  to  a  slow  death  from  exposure  and  famine 
between  the  opposing  ramparts. 

Then  the  relieving  army  attacked.  Simultaneously 
the  besieged  made  a  sortie.  The  fighting  was  desperate, 
The  final  especially  on  a  certain  hill  on  the  north  side, 
s  rugg  e.  ^Jj-^j2j  ^^g  ^j^g  weakest  point  in  Caesar's  lines,' 
and  Caesar  himself  was  in  the  thickest  of  it.  Victory 
remained  with  the  Romans.  Vercingetorix  had  played 
and  lost.  Next  day,  to  spare  further  bloodshed  and  save 
his  countrymen,  he  rode  into  Caesar's  presence  and  sur- 
rendered  (52  b.c).    In  the  following  year  Caesar  had  no 


THE  WORLD  FINDS  A  MASTER         857 

difficulty  in  stamping  out  the  last  embers  of  resistance  ; 
by  the  end  of  51  b.c.  Gaul  was  Rome's,  and  Gallia 
Comata,  as  it  was  sometimes  called,  was  attached  to  the 
old  southern  *'  Province  "  of  Gallia  Narbonensis. 

The  chain  was  complete.  The  Roman  eagle  spread 
his  wings  from  Jerusalem  to  Gibraltar.  The  world,  east 
and  west,  had  found  a  master. 


CHAPTER   XX 


THE   PRICE    OF   EMPIRE 

0  my  poor  kingdom,  sick  with  civil  blows  I 
O,  thou  wilt  be  a  wilderness  again, 
Peopled  with  wolves,  thy  old  inhabitants  I 

Shakespeare. 
The  world  had  found  a  master ;  but  what  of  the  master  ^ 
Borne  had  conquered  by  the  sword  and  now  the  sword 
The  effect      was  turned  against  her  own  heart.     How  was 

of  these  fbiQ  9 

conquests       ^"^^  ^ 

conqueror  ^^""^^^    ^""'^^^    "'    ""^^  ^'^^'^^'   ^^^   ultimate 

cause  of  the  troubles  which  overtook  the 
Roman  republic  in  the  last  century  of  its  existence  was 
—security.  Security  from  without  which  bred  insecurity 
within.  Few  things  are  worse  for  a  man  than  bein<^  too 
comfortable ;  few  things  are  worse  for  a  state.  Adtm's 
sentence,  commonly  but  quite  wrongly  regarded  and 
regretted  as  a  curse,  is  in  reality  a  blessing.  Tilling 
*'  the  ground  from  whence  he  was  taken "  and  eating 
bread  "in  the  sweat  of  his  face,"  man  strengthens  his 
hbre,  physical  and  moral ;  his  hands  are  kept  too  busy 
to  fall  into  mischief.  He  is  better  outside  the  Garden  • 
the  leisure  and  security  within  are  fatal  to  him. 

The  ancient  Spartans  were  forbidden  to  surround 
themselves  with  fortifications.  They  lived  in  a  cluster  of 
of'stm""?  ^^^^^  villages,  disdaining  walls,  for  every  man 
0  s  rugg  e.  (3f  ^^^^^  ^^^^  proudly  boasted,  was  himself  a 
brick.    And  this  deliberate  and  self-imposed  exposure  to 

358 


THE  PRICE   OF  EMPIRE 


359 


attack  made  them  strong  and  wakeful  and  patriotic  to 
the  point  of  sacrificing  every  interest  and  convenience 
to  the  safety  of  the  community.  Similarly  the  Romans, 
so  long  as  they  felt  not  quite  secure,  so  long  as  they 
were  still  struggling  and  wrestling  and  pushing  their 
way  through  a  press  of  strong  and  determined  rivals, 
developed  and  preserved  all  the  finest  qualities  of  good 
patriots  and  strong  men. 

But  success  was  as  fatal  as  the  heat  and  dust  of 
struggle  had  been  favourable  to  the  soundness  of  the 
national  character.  The  sense  of  security  The  feeling 
induced  by  the  disappearance  of  competition  ^^  security, 
was  the  beginning  of  demoralization.  Patriotism  decayed ; 
luxury,  personal  and  class  selfishness  were  rife ;  the  poor 
were  neglected  and  grew  poorer,  the  rich  grew  richer  and 
hardened  their  hearts ;  arrogance  ripened  into  oppression, 
discontent  was  embittered  into  hate,  ambition  lost  its  last 
remaining  scruples. 

And  the  fountain-head  of  all  this  misery  was  the 
defeat  of  Carthage.  The  victim  had  taken  a  terrible 
revenge  on  the  victor.  Here  is  the  picture  of  cause  and 
this  age  drawn  a  century  later  by  a  Roman,  a  ®*^®*^*- 
younger  contemporary  of  Julius  Caesar.*  "  When  our 
great  rival  Carthage  had  been  swept  from  our  path  and  the 
whole  world  lay  at  our  feet,  all  was  mad  confusion.  The 
craving  for  money  and  power  was  the  root  of  untold 
evils.  For  the  money-grabbing  spirit  undermined  honour 
and  honesty  and  all  other  virtues,  and  put  in  their  place 
arrogance,  cruelty,  irreligion  and  a  readiness  to  regard 
everything  as  a  legitimate  object  of  traffic.  Ambition 
taught  men  to  be  liars,  to  speak  one  thing  and  think 
another,  to  regulate  friendship  by  self-interest  and  to 
make  fair  looks  a  mask  for  a  black  heart.  At  first  the 
evils  grew  slowly  and  at  times  even  sufi'ered  a  set-back, 

*  Sallust,  "  Catilina,"  xx. 


aco 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


but,  when  the  taint  spread  like  a  pestilence,  political  life 
was  demoralized  and  our  government  degenerated  from 
Its  old  standard  of  justice  and  virtue  into  a  heartlessness 
beyond  the  power  of  men  to  endure." 

The  ancient  parable  was  justified.  Hercules  in  a  ra-e 
slew  Nessus  with  a  poisoned  arrow,  but  his  own  victim's 
Jfemesis.  ^'°''''  steeped  in  deadly  power  the  robe  which 
>,,•=  1  .,  *"'"','"  ^°  mercilessly  to  his  body  and  caused 
his  death  amidst  appalling  agonies.   Rome  had  triumphed 

mlT  rf''  ^'"'  ^^^  Nessus-shirt  clung  more  and 
more  dosely,  devouring  like  a  flame,  and  the  violence  put 

mutilated.''""''"  ''  ^'"  *'  ''"''^  °^  "'"  '''"'"  '°™  ''°'' 

Snif!'?",'^'  ^T®  ^"^  ^^"^ '"  *^«  P««''ion  of  <incient 
bpaita,  feeling   that  her  safety  depended  not  on   the 

Internal        absence  of  enemies  nor  on  unassailable  walls 

but  on  her  own  stern  manliness,  all  was  well. 

When  other  nations  ceased  to  count  and  this 

healthy  apprehensiveness  was  exchanged  for  a 

comfortable   feeling  of  security,  all  went  ill. 

The  country  was  not  now  torn  by  the  long  and  bitter 

quarrel  between  Patrician  and  Plebeian.     That  distinction 

had  been  for  ever  swept  away  by  successive  enactments 

^hich  made  all  men  pohtically  equal  in  the  eye  of  the 

law     A  man  might  still  with  pardonable  and  harmless 

pnde  recall  that  he  belong  to  a  Patrician  house  and  bring 

up  his  son  to  be  proud  of  the  family  name;  but  though 

socially  an  advantage,  politically  it  conferred  no  privS 

but'i^Lt?'^'";?-"^'"^'  '^"'  '°"«  and'difficut 
anl  pfeleian  r^K  *'™"''''  and  successful.  Patrician 
and  1  lei  e  an  had  become  mere  terms  of  heraldry  with 
histonca  interest  but  no  practical  significance. 

-But  the  breaking  down  of  barriers  does  not  make 
men  equal  any  more  than  the  removal  of  fences  wouW 
make  a  country  one  soil  with  one  produce.    Oqe  Z^e 


discord. 
Old  dis- 
tinctions 
replaced 
by  new. 


THE   PEICE  OF   EMPIRE  361 

being  worn  out  is  consigned  to  the  rubbish-heap,  but 
another  is  inevitably  erected  in  its  place.    The  Patricians 
politically  were  no  more ;  but  the  place  of  the  The  new 
old  aristocracy  of  birth  was  filled  by  a  new  aris-  aristocracy, 
tocracy  of  public  service.     The  new  aristocrats  pubUc''' 
might  be  Patricians  or  Plebeians  ;  a  few  might  service, 
know,  but  none  cared,  which  they  were.    Let  us  dismiss 
the  distinction  once  for  all  from  our  minds.     They  were 
men  who  had  .served,  or  whose  fathers  had  served,  their 
country  at  home  or  abroad,  in   the  forum  or  on  the 
battlefield. 

After  holding  high  public  office  they  entered  the 
benate,  the  Roman  House  of  Lords,  and  formed  a  close 
and  exclusive  class,  perhaps  more  so  than  the 
class  they  had  supplanted.    At  first  they  were,  ^'  ^'''**'' 
obviously,  a  body  of  picked  men,  who  had 'won  their 
spurs— in  a  word,  an  aristocracy  of  merit.     Being  thus 
composed,  the  Senate  wielded  immense  influence,  and 
even  power.    Although  nominally  the  popular  assembly, 
or  Lower  House,  was  legislatively  supreme,  the  Senate 
practically  controlled  the  executive,  and  by  virtue  of  its 
composition  was  supreme  in  fact.     It  controlled  finance ; 
It  decided  on  peace  and  war,  and  directed  the  operations 
of  both.     And  its  remarkable  ability  and   success— for 
mstance,  in  the  conduct  of  the  war  with  Hannibal -raised 
It  above  the  rest  of  the  community  as  if  in  an  impreff- 
nable  rock-built  citadel. 

But  power  tends  irresistibly  to  corrupt  all  but  the 
very  noblest  type  of  character,  and  the  senatorial  class  at 
Rome  enjoyed  no  immunity  from  the  insidious  corruption 
malady.     They  had  engrossed  all  the  duties  of  of  the 
leadership   and  incurred  all  its  risks ;   they  Govern"'^ 
reaped  all  its  profits.     No  one  was  to  share  °^®^^- 
with  them  their  hard-won  spoil.    It  is  becoming  fashion- 
able to  say  nowadays  that  war  does  not  pay,  even  the 


f 


I 


t# 


302 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


victorious  side ;  nor  does  it,  considering  the  nation  as  a 
whole.    By  the  South  African  war  England  added  one 
more  patch  of  red  to  the  map  of  the  world,  for  which 
amusement  she  paid  some  thousands  of  lives  and  two 
hundred  millions  of  money.    But  it  paid  some  contractors 
and  financiers.    Similarly,  the  wars  of  the  Repuhlic  were 
a  source  of  profit  to  the  senatorial  class.    Although  they 
were  debarred  by  law  from  engaging  directly  in  trade, 
there  were  ways  not  unknown  to  them  of  participating 
indirectly  and  getting   money's  worth.      Wars  meant 
commands  with  opportunities  of  distinction  and  spoil  • 
fresh  conquests  meant  fresh  provinces  to  be  governed' 
and  governorships  with  facilities  for  further  spoil      The 
senators  who  stayed  at  home  need  not  complain  o"f  their 
luck,  for  they  could  still  secure  a  share  of  the  loot  by 
sitting  in  judgment  on  the  retired  governor  at  his  home- 
coming, scowling  their  righteous  displeasure  at  his  mis- 
deeds and  acquitting  him  for  a  consideration.     Thus  the 
wealth  extorted  from  the  provinces  was  distributed  and 
put  into  circulation  in  the  capital.    .Judge  and  jury  were 
all  aike  senators :  the  good  things  did  not  go  out  of  the 
family.     And  a  happy  family  it  was.     The  world  poured 
into  Its  lap  conquests  and  triumphs,  loot  and  lands,  an 
unlimited  supply  of  slaves,  and  millions  of  bushels  of 
corn. 

For  all  the  happy  family  party  knew  or  cared,  this 
blissful  state  of  things  was  to  last  for  ever.    Everything 
was  at  its  best  in  the  best  of  all  possible 
worids.      They  had  power  and  wealth  and 
social  position  and  leisure  and  pleasure.     Their 
,-t«.if         ^^i!'-^®^  P"^'  *''®'''  ^"Perfluous  wealth  rolled 

exnVn  J'/  '^^'  ^'"'''"^  °''   ^^^P*'  ^''^  '^^''essary 

flood  fh!  decreased^  for  did  not  every  fresh  conquest 
flood  the  market  with  slaves  who  could  be  had  almost  for 
the  asking  ?    Life  was  kind  indeed  to  these  lords  of  the 


THE  PRICE  OF  EMPIRE 


363 


Blindness 
of  the 
governing 
class. 


earth ;  ifc  would  have  been  ungrateful  to  quarrel  with 
their  happiness.  Their  hearts  and  eyes  waxed  fat,  and 
they  cared  for  nobody  and  nothing  but  themselves. 

But  outside  the  charmed  circle  men  were  beginning 
to  growl.     The  "  shepherds  of  the  people  "  were  amus- 
ing   themselves,   and   the    ''hungry    sheep" 
were  being  neither  fed  nor  cared  for.     Devo-  dtscrnt?nt 
tion  and  sacrifice  went  unrequited ;  justifiable  °^  ^^^ 
aspirations  remained  unsatisfied;  elementary  ^°''^^''®^- 
rights   were   denied;    imperative  wants  even  were   un- 
supplied.     The  small  farmers  were  ruined,  partly  by  the 
ravages   of  war,   partly  by  unfair  competition.     Free 
labour  was   ousted  by  the  forced   toil  of  slave-gangs. 
Inevitable  debt  was  followed  inexorably,  sooner  or  later, 
by  bankruptcy;   the  huge  estates  swallowed   up   their 
smaller  neighbours,  and  grew  still  larger,  and  landless 
and  penniless  men  thronged  the  streets  of  Eome.     The 
provincials   grumbled  because  they  wei-e  excluded  from 
the  franchise,  and  because,  though  they  fought  Home's 
wars  and  got  all  the  "  knocks,"  none  of  the  "  ha'pence  " 
ever  came  their  way.    The  public  land  was  not  for  them ; 
it  was  scrambled  for  in   the  family  ring  of  the  elect. 
The  soldiers  grumbled  at  the  harsh  conditions  of  their 
service,  with  its  absence  of  rewards  and  its  over-stern 
discipline.    All  around  and  below  the  earth  was  full  of 
wrongs  and  the  air  full  of  grumbling.      But  the  mis- 
governing class  continued  to  misgovern  without  a  qualm. 
They  held  their  heads  high,  and  saw  the  sun  shining 
overhead  in  a  serene  sky,  and  they  were  happy.    But 
below,  where  they  disdained  to  look,  the  flood  was  rising, 
and  soon  its  waves  lapped  ominously  at  the  foot  of  their 
castle-rock. 

The  Roman  nobility  had  been  weighed  and  found 
wanting,  and  the  writing  was  already  on  the  wall.  But 
the  agony  was  protracted.    At  first  cfonstitutional  means 


SGi 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


of  redress  were  tried.  As  so  often  happens,  the  domi- 
nant party  were  attacked  in  the  first  instance  by  one 
auemptat  ^^  ^^^^^^^elves.  Scipio  Africanus  the  elder, 
reform :  *      ^^^^  ^^^d  Conquered  Hannibal  at  Zama  (202 

SacciTus         ''''''^     '''''^     '^''''^     ""'     '^'^'^^     ^«    ^'^y    ^^^    to 

consolidate  the  position  of  the  senatorial  class, 
had    a    daughter    Cornelia,    who    married   the    Consul 
Gracchus,  and  became  by  him  the  mother  of  two  sons 
Ti beruis  and  Gains.     They  were  ambitious,  and  early 
determnied  on   a  political   career,   but   they  were  also 
observant  and  sympathetic,  and  had  the  courage  of  their 
convictions.     Tiberius  the  elder  was  painfully  impressed 
by  the  appearance  of  the  countryside  with  its  vast  estates 
of  grazing  land  worked  by  slaves,  and  its  scarcity  of 
smaller  farms  or   arable   land.     On   becoming  tribune, 
he  bent  all  his  eloquence  and  energy  to  remedying  this 
evil  by  an  agrarian  measure.     The  landowners,  who  had 
been  allowed  by  the  Government  to  occupy  state-lands, 
had  absorbed  vast  quantities  of  it,  and  had  moreover 
developed  unchecked  the  unjustifiable  and  mischievous 
theory  that  the  land  was  their  own  private  property, 
liberius  proposed  to  assign  limits  to  individual  holdings 
of  state-land,  to  resume  the  surplus,  and  to  apply  It 
towards  providing  allotments  for  the  rapidly  dwindling 
class  of  small  farmers.     The  Bill  was  really  a  re-enact- 
ment  of   the    famous    Licinian    law  passed    over    two 
centuries  before.     But  so  completely  was  that  law  dis- 
regarded, and  so  far  had  the  landowning  class  departed 
from  Its  principle,  that  the  proposal  was  denounced  as 
an  unheard-of  and  pernicious  innovation,  and  its  author 
as  an  unscrupulous  and  dangerous  revolutionary.     The 
champions  of  law  and  decorum  held  up  their  hands  in 
pious  horror,  and  invoked   the  aid  of— violence.     The 
noble  lords  issued  from  the  Senate  house,  armed  with 
legs   of   chairs   and   benches,  and  in  the  riot  which 


THE  PRICE  OF  EMPIRE 


365 


followed,  the  first  civil  bloodshed  in  the  streets  of 
Rome,  Tiberius  lost  his  life  in  the  cause  of  reform 
(133  B.C.). 

His  younger  brother  Gaius  ten  years  later  followed 
the  same  path,  but  went  further.    He  had  more  ability, 
eloquence,  and  force,  and  a  more  comprehen- 
sive plan.   His  proposals  affected  every  depart-  attempt  ; 
ment  of  the  State — economic,  military,  judicial,  ?*^^^j^ 
and  administrative.     Some  of  his  enactments 
remained  undisturbed,  and  continued  to  influence  subse- 
quent  history,    for   good   or   ill.     By   inaugurating   the 
system  of  distribution  of  cheap  corn  to  poor  citizens,  he 
tied  a  millstone  round  the  neck  of  the  State,  which  could 
never  be  removed — a  grave  blunder  for  which  he  must 
be  censured.    But  by  wresting  the  control  of  the  law- 
courts  from  the  Senatorial  class  and  giving  it  to  the 
**  Knights  " — the  rich  mercantile  section — he  created  a 
new  class  with  privileges  of  its  own,  which  acted  as  a 
powerful  check  on  the  nobles,  and  helped  materially  in 
compassing    their    overthrow.      His    schemes    for    the 
foundation  of  colonies,  and  for  a  partial  extension  of  the 
franchise,  evoked  violent  opposition,  even  from  some  of 
the  popular  party.     Once  more  the  streets  of  the  capital 
rang  with   the   clash  of  arms,   and   Gaius   shared  his 
brother's  fate. 

Ordinary  constitutional  and  legal  means  had  been 
tried  and  had  failed.     The  Senate  had  thrown  down  the 
glove  in  haughty  defiance ;  with  calm  determi-  change 
nation  the  reformers  took  it  up.     Nor  did  the  ^^  ^^® 
opportunity  keep  them  waiting  long,  and  when  of  the 
next  they  pleaded  their  arguments  were  swords,  conflict, 
short,  sharp,  and  unanswerable. 

The  Senate's  incapacity  kept  pace  with  their  growing 
obstinacy.  They  began  to  fail  in  the  very  qualities 
which    had    made    their    chief    strength;    they    could 


3G6 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


produce  neither  wise  counsellors,  nor  uncorrupfc  judges 
nor   competent   generals.     The  lirst  two  defects   they 
Growing       ^^^^^^  ^^^^^e  survived,  as  others   have  done; 
hei^piessness  but  the  third  was  fatal.   All  three  were  revealed 
Senate.  "^  ^^^  ^^^^'^^  ^^'^^^^^  Ugliness  by  their  infamous 

and  disastrous  conduct  of  the  war  with 
the  African  chief  Jugurtha.  Their  policy  was  blind, 
then-  commissioners  took  bribes,  their  generals  were 
hopelessly  outwitted,  and  their  armies  completely 
demoralized. 

The  national  patience  was  strained  to  breaking-point, 
and  at  last,  after  an  incident  more  than  usually  out-' 
Marius.        ^"^S^ous,  the  people  took  the  matter  into  their 
own  hands.     The  nobility,  in  spite  of  protests 
and  unworthy  sneers,  were  forced  to  accept  as  consul 
and  commander-in-chief  of  the  forces  in  Africa  a  son  of 
the  people,  Gaius  Marius.     Marius  was  a  rough-man- 
nered provincial  with  no  social  pretensions,  but  he  was  a 
born  soldier.    The  paltry  war,  which  had  been  allowed 
to  grow  into  a  national  scandal,  gave  him  no  trouble 
(lOG  B.C.).     No  sooner  was  it  over  than  the  Cimbric  and 
Teutonic  peril  threatened  in  the  north.     Senatorial  pro- 
consuls were  defeated,  whole  armies  were  annihilated 
Marius,  fresh  from  the  conquest  of  Jugurtha,  was  the 
one  man  who  could  save  the  State.    And  he  did  so.    The 
constitution  was  violated  that  Marius  might  enjoy  four 
consecutive  consulships  to  repel  the  foreign  foe.    He  had 
become  indispensable. 

If  only  the  nobles  had  made  him  their  friend,  what  a 
tower  of  strength  they  would  have  possessed  in  him  ! 

Marius         ^^^  ^^^^^   ^^^^  ^^^^Y   was   leading   them   to 
joins  the       the  precipice.     The  year  after  his  return  from 

Kefom.        *^^  "oi't^>  with  the  splendour  of  Aquae  Sextae 

and  the  Raudine  Plain  still  upon  him,  Marius 

threw  m   his  lot  with  the  reformers.     This  time   the 


THE  HUGE   OF  EMPIRE 


367 


government  had  to  deal  not  with  a  young,  high-minded 
enthusiast  like  Tiberius  or  Gaius  Gracchus,  who,  while 
actuated  by  generous  and  democratic  impulses,  was  yet 
one  of  themselves  and  had  scruples,  but  with  a  seasoned 
soldier,  born  and  brought  up  outside  the  charmed 
circle,  and,  moreover,  embittered  by  ingratitude  and 
contempt. 

Saturninus  and    Glaucia    carried    their  democratic 
measures,  distributing  land,  establishing  oversea  colonies 
for  Italians,  and  still  further  lowering  the  price 
of  corn,  by  the  aid  of  Marius  and  his  legions,  moteme^ 
The   reformers  had  become    revolutionaries,  becomes  a 
But  they  were  in  too  great  a  hurry.      The  ^^^°  ^  ^°^* 
times  were  not  yet  ripe.     Marius,  who  was  no  politician, 
lost  his  nerve,  and  would  not  follow  his  associates.     The 
Senate's  humble  appeal  to   him  as  consul  to   repress 
sedition  found  him  ready  to  comply.      He   threw  over 
his  friends,  and   the  revolution  was   checked.      Then, 
ashamed  of  his  own  act,  he  left  Rome  and  withdrew  from 
the  public  gaze. 

But  the  snake  was  only  "  scotched,  not  killed,"  and 
was  soon  to  close  and  be  itself.  The  revolution  w^as 
gathering  impetus,  and  nothing  could  now  Murder  of 
stop  it.  At  first  it  moved  uncertainly.  The  ^^usus. 
forces  of  reaction,  encouraged  by  the  fall  of  Saturninus 
and  Glaucia,  showed  a  bold  front.  The  question  of  the 
franchise  w^as  shelved.  Then  they  once  more  felt  uneasy, 
and,  at  the  prompting  of  a  section  of  the  Senatorial  party, 
the  tribune  Drusus  proposed  reforms  as  ample  and 
generous  as  any  hitherto  contemplated.  But  they  met 
with  bitter  opposition,  and  when  they  were  brushed  aside 
and  Drusus  himself  was  murdered,  the  pent-up  fury  of 
Italy  exploded  (91  b.c). 

Civil  war,  so  long  in   the  air,  had  become  a  grim 
reality.     Marius  once  more  was  on  the  side  of  the  Senate, 


368 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


but  his  heart  was  not  in  his  work,  and,  after  two  vie- 
Civil  War.  *^^'^^^'  ^^^  resigned  his  post.  The  rebels 
Extension  attained  their  object;  the  full  franchise  was 
franchise.  ^^^^^  ^^  ^^^  whole  of  Italy  up  to  the  River 
Po.  It  was  a  complete  victory  for  the  demo- 
cracy (89  B.C.). 

But  more  was  to  follow,  and  events  came  thick  and 
fast.  The  new  voters  were  distributed  among  all  the 
Sulla  "tribes,"  or  electoral  districts,  so  that  their 

Rome:''  ^^^^^  °^^o^^*  ^^^^e  their  full  value;  bankrupts 
Marius  Were  excluded  from  the  Senate  or  Upper  House ; 
outlawed.  j^j^j^  Yast  but  not  least,  the  conduct  of  the  war 
with  Mithridates,  which  had  been  given  to  the  friend  of 
the  Senate  Sulla,  was  transferred  by  popular  vote  to 
Marius.  Sulla  instantly  marched  on  the  capital,  and  for 
the  first  time  in  history  (but  not  the  last),  Rome  was 
captured  by  a  Roman  army.  Marius  was  outlawed  but 
escaped,  and  Sulla,  after  setting  things  in  order  on  a 
conservative  basis,  sailed  for  the  East.  The  Senate  had 
found  that  they  too  now  possessed  a  strong  partisan  and 
good  soldier. 

But  in  his  absence  the  revolutionary  spirit  broke  out 
afresh,  and  this  time  the  aged  Marius,  soured  by  cease- 
Marius         K^^  Opposition  and  frequent  failure,  vented 
returns:        his  feelings  of  hate  with  vindictive  ferocity. 
Te^'or"  °^     ^^  ^^^^  ^  ^eig"  of  Terror.     Many  of  the  chief 
heads  of  the  nobihty  fell,  the  party  was  cowed, 
and  Marius  was  elected  to  his  seventh  consulship  (86  b.c.)! 
But  the  lire  burnt  itself  out,  and  the  grim  old  man  died 
before  he  could  -  wade  through  slaughter  "  any  deeper. 
Cinna,  his  colleague,  continued  consul,  quits  unconsti- 
tutionally, for  four  years,  and  passed  numerous  uncom- 
promising measures. 

But  Sulla  returned  in  triumph  from  the  East  with 
men  and  money,  defeated  the  revolutionary  forces,  took 


THE  PRICE   OF  EMPIRE  369 

Rome  and  proceeded  to  settle  accounts  with  the  enemy. 
Ihis  time  the  champions  of  the  constitution,  counter 
the    Defenders    of    the    old    Faith,    enjoved  revolution: 

themselves.     No  half-measures  would  satiVv  ^''V*      . 
Qiillo      1VT«  •       11      ,  vvuuiu  sansiy  restores  the 

bulla.    Marms  had  set  an  evil  example  •  Sulla  Senate, 
improved   upon   it.     Having  first  cleared    the  ground 
by  a  wholesae  proscription  of  the  democratic  party  in- 
cud,ng  nearly  tw^  oi  the  wealthiest  class,  he 

busied  himself,  during  a  dictatorship  lasting  two  years 
With  a  variety  of  measures  to  curb  the  liberty  of  the 
popular  assembly  and  their  officers,  the  Tribunes,  and  to 
restore  and  fortify  the  position  of  the  Senate  as  the  one 
supreme  power  in  the  State.  It  was  strengthened  by 
the  introduction  of  three  hundred  "  safe  "  men  from  the 
wealthy  "Knights,"  and  recovered  the  sole  controlTf  the 

Perhaps  Sulla  had  hoped 

To  reap  the  harvest  of  perpetual  peace 
By  this  one  bloody  trial  of  sharp  war, 

but  men  are  not  made  good  or  bad  by  Act  of  Parliament 
The  causes  of  the  Senate's  impotence  lay  deep  t7  c 
down  beyond  the  reach  of  Sulla's  art  He  '^^U. 
retired  and  died  the  following  year,  and  his  work  scarcely 
suryived  him.  He  had  painted  the  ship  and  equS 
her  till  she  looked  yery  brave,  but  the  crew  were  rotS 

?iXmtJ:"^"'''^«-*^p^--^°^-^"'^-^^^^^^ 

Th Jfr  >"''  f  ''''  ''''°'''^  ^^'^^''^y  ™«  short-liyed. 
The  fruis  of  misgoyernment  showed  themselves  in 
trouble  with  rebels  in  Spain,  with  slaves  and T 
gladiators  in  Southern  iLy.'and  witJ'LaTes  ^^e^'" 
on  the  high  seas.  All  three  wars  were  mismanaged  and 
once  more,  through  sheer  dearth  of  ability,  the  domed 

2b 


ii 


370 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


Pompey. 


Senate  was  forced  to  rely  on  one  or  two  men,  and  to 
trust  them  with  powers  which  could  not  fail  to  make  them 
dangerous.  It  was  the  old  story  of  Marius  over  again, 
but  with  an  important  difference.  Marius  was  a  soldier, 
but  no  statesman  or  even  politician.  His  party  was  in 
too  great  a  hurry,  and  indulged  in  excessive  violence,  and 
the  reaction  under  Sulla  came  as  its  very  proper  punish- 
ment. But  this  time  the  democratic  leaders  were  both 
strong  soldiers  and  level-headed  men  of  affairs.  The 
combination  was  too  strong.  In  70  B.C.  it  was  Pompey 
who  acted;  ten  years  later  it  was  Caesar;  we  need 
mention  no  others. 

Pompey,  born,  like  Cicero,  in  the  year  of  the  final 
defeat  of  Jugurtha  by  Marius  (106  b.c),  distinguished 
himself  at  the  age  of  twenty-three  by  raising 
three  legions  to  fight  for  Sulla  on  his  return 
from  the  East  against  the  party  of  Marius  (83  b.c).  Slx 
years  later,  though  he  had  never  yet  filled  the  consulship, 
nor,  indeed,  any  lower  office,  the  Senate,  in  alarm  at  the 
continued  success  of  the  rebel  Sertorius,  appointed  him 
proconsul  with  the  chief  command  in  Spain.  In  other 
words,  the  Senate  itself  set  at  nought  Sullas  constitution, 
an  example  which  was  eagerly  followed,  and  proved  their 
undoing.  Another  six  years  passed,  and  Pompey,  having 
finished  the  Sertorian  war,  and  helped  to  finish  the  war 
with  Spartacus,  demanded  the  consulship  and  a  triumph 
and  lands  for  his  soldiers,  and,  on  being  refused  all  three, 
deserted  the  Senatorial  party,  and  joined  the  '^  Knights," 
the  class  of  wealth  without  privilege  led  by  Crassus,  and 
the  Democracy.  The  Senate  were  helpless, 
Cr^sus  *^  and  the  coalition  got  all  they  wanted.  Pompey 
undo  Sulla's  ^nd  Crassus  as  consuls  (70  b.c.)  calmly  undid 

work 

the  work  of  Sulla;  the  "Knights"  regained 
partial  control  of  the  law-courts,  and  the  Tribunes  were 
restored  to  their  ancient  legislative  powers.     They  not 


THE   PRICE   OF   EMPIRE  371 

only  stripped  Sulla's  ship  of  its  paint  and  ornaments 
but  seriously  loosened  its  timbers  in  the  process      The' 
next  storm  would  infallibly  sink  it. 

Having  struck  this  shrewd  blow,  Pompey  retired  from 
public  life ;  but  before  long  trouble  abroad  drew  him  out 
of  his  retreat.    He  was  given  unprecedented  ^  «. 
powers  against  the  Mediterranean  pirates,  and  Trfumf 
almost  immediately  after  the  chief  command  ^'''*^^' 
in  the  Far  East,  and  returning  after  six  years  in  triumph 
loaded  with  spoil  and  with   a   formidable  army  at  his 
heels,  he  threw  in  his   lot  once  more  with  the  party 
of  reform,  his  old  associate  Crassus  representing  the 
commercial   interest,   and    the    third    member    of    the 
coalition   being    no    less  a  person    than   Gaius  Julius 
Caesar  (60  b.c). 

Caesar  was  now  forty,  having  been  born  in  the  year 
(100  B.C.)  when  Marius,  for  the  sixth  time  consul,  fought 
a  regular  battle  in  the   forum    against   the  juiius 
extreme  democrats  Glaucia  and   Saturninus.  ^*®sar. 
He  belonged  to  one  of  the  oldest  patrician '  houses  of 
Rome,  the  Julii,  claiming  direct  descent  from  lulus,  the 
son  of  Aeneas,  the  son  of  the  goddess  Venus  !    But'  the 
length  of  their  pedigree,  though  a  just  subject  of  pride 
was  not  with  them  an  excuse  for  stiff-necked  conserva- 
tism.    The  branch  of  the   family  to  which  the  future 
Dictator  belonged  kept  well  abreast  of  the  movement  of 
the  times,  and  had  given  proofs  of  their  sympathy  with 
the  popular  cause.     His  father's  brother  was  the  consul 
who,  in  the  year  90,  by  a  Lex  Julia,  had  granted  the 
franchise   to   all   the  Italian   states  not  in  a  state  of 
revolt,  and  their  sister  Julia  had  married  the  democrat 
Marius. 

Young  Caesar  himself  showed  his  own  leanings  in 
the  same  direction  by  marrying  at  an  early  age  Cornelia, 
the  daughter  of  the  revolutionary  Cinna.    He  was  tall' 


372 


THE   ANCIENT  WOULD 


slim,  and  fair,  with  a  large,  well-formed  head  and  clear- 
cut  features,  and,  though  delicate,  was  muscularly  strong 
and  of  boundless  courage.  He  could  grasp  a  situation 
and  make  up  his  mind  in  a  moment.  By  the  time  he 
was  twenty  he  had  defied  the  omnipotent  dictator,  Sulla, 
by  firmly  refusing  to  divorce  his  wife  Cornelia,  had  won 
the  "  civic  crown,"  corresponding  to  our  Victoria  Cross, 
and  destroyed  a  nest  of  pirates  who  had  captured  him. 
At  the  age  of  thirty-two  he  again  showed  his  political 
colours  by  displaying  a  bust  of  Marius  and  recounting 
his  praises  in  a  speech  at  the  funeral  of  the  great  man's 
widow,  his  aunt  Julia.  He  was  the  idol  of  the  people, 
and  rapidly  rose  through  a  succession  of  offices  to  be 
praetor  in  62  and  propraetor  in  Further  Spain  in  61, 
where  at  the  age  of  thirty-nine  this  prince  of  soldiers 
first  learnt  the  art  of  war.  In  the  same  year  Pompey 
returned  from  the  East,  and  was  disgusted  with  his 
cool  reception  by  the  Senate,  and  in  the  next  year, 
on  Caesar's  return  from  Spain,  the  two  became  firm 
friends,  and  with  Crassus  made  common  cause  against 
the  government.  The  league  was  cemented  by  the 
marriage  of  Pompey  with  Caesar's  only  daughter 
Julia. 

Naturally,  against  this  formidable  coalition  the  party 
of  the  nobles  was  helpless.  It  was  agreed  that  Caesar 
should  be  made  consul  and  redress  the  cjriev- 
first  con-  ances  of  both  his  partners.  Accordingly,  in 
69^?c*'  ^^  ^•^•'  Caesar  as  consul  passed  measures 
granting  allotments  to  Pompey's  soldiers,  and 
ratifying  his  acts  in  the  East,  and  granting  easier  terms 
to  Crassus  and  the  other  "  Knights  "  who  had  contracted 
for  the  taxes  of  Asia.  For  himself  Caesar  at  the  end  of 
his  year  of  office  was  to  have  the  governorship  of  Cis- 
alpine Gaul  and  the  Transalpine  **  Province,"  with  four 
legions,  for  five  years. 


THE  PRICE   OP  EMPIRE  373 

The  rout  of  the  Senatorial  party  was  complete.  They 
had  given  in  to  every  demand,  and  here  was  the  champion 
of  the  Democracy  in  command  of  le^rions  and  rm. 
a  provnice  not  two  hundred  miles  from  Rome,  Revolution 
with  no  sea,  nor  even  a  river  of  any  account,  *"^°^P^a^^- 
to  separate  them.  The  Revolution  was  triumphant. 
With  Caesar's  and  Pompey's  connivance,  the  cheap  corn 
for  the  unemployed  was  now  distributed  gratis,  all 
religious  checks  on  legislation  were  swept  away,  and 
Cicero,  too  much  the  friend  of  the  Oligarchy,  was 
banished.  The  Trio,  generally  called  the  "  First  Trium- 
virate," were  omnipotent.  Caesar's  command  was  pro- 
longed for  a  further  five  years— his  army  and  his  plans 
were  not  yet  ripe— and  important  duties  were  found  for 
Pompey  and  Crassus,  so  that  the  three  men  between 
them  held  all  the  power  and  controUed  all  the  armed 
forces  of  the  State. 

Suddenly  Julia  died  and  Crassus  was  killed  in  the 
East,  and  two  of  the  strongest  links  between  Pompey 
and  Caesar  were  snapped.     The  mischievous 
example  of  using  mob-law  as  a  legislative  lever  between 
was  only  too  eagerly  imitated,  and  the  streets  ^^^^ar  and 
of  Rome  were  constantly  the  scene  of  violent  ^*^°^^®^- 
conflicts  between  armed  bands,  not  merely  of  political 
enthusiasts,   but  of  hired  ruffians.     In  one  of   these 
Clodius,  for  several  years  the  arch-bully  of  the  streets, 
was  met  with  his  own  methods  and  murdered.     The 
insecurity   of   the   roads   was   a   public   scandal.      The 
government,  in  deep  alarm,  approached  the  one  strong 
man  still  left  in  Rome,  and  appealed  to  his  vanity,  and 
Pompey  became  sole  consul— that  is.  Dictator  in  all  but 
name.     The  two  men,  in  Rome  and  in  Gaul,  stood  face 
to  face,  with  no  third  partner  or  private  tie  to  soften  the 
opposition.     They  realized  that  they  were  rivals,  and  the 
gulf  widened  between  them. 


374 


THE  ANCIENT  WORLD 


THE   PRICE   OF   EMPIRE 


375 


The  Senate  was  afraid  of  disorder  and  revolution  and 
especially  Caesar,  who  must  some  day  come  home  with  a 
Pompey        redoubtable  army;   and  Pompey  "letting  *I 

senatf '  '^^'*^  ""^^ '  ^^^^^  "P^^  *  ^  ^^^^uld,'  "  shared  their 
fears,  with  an  added  touch  of  jealousy.  They 
drew  together,  at  first  unconsciously,  and  Caesar  found 
on  the  eve  of  his  return  that  his  former  associate  had 
jomed  the  enemy.  Ostensibly,  they  quarrelled  on 
technical  points,  the  expiry  of  Caesar's  command,  the 
disbanding  of  his  troops,  and  his  candidature  for  the 
consulship ;  but  the  real  quarrel  lay  far  deeper.  The 
incompetent  Senate  had  gone  from  blunder  to  blunder 
till  it  now  was  confronted  by  the  strongest,  ablest,  and 
most  insistent  of  all  the  armed  champions  of  the 
Revolution,  and  no  compromise  was  possible. 

Once  more  the  flames  of  civil  war  were  kindled  and 
the  conflagration  spread  over  well-nigh  the  whole  of  the 
The  great  ^oman  world.  Pompey  at  first  was  confident 
ci^'esa™ '  ^^^  contemptuous.  "  I  have  but  to  stamp  my 
secures         ^^o^*"  ^^  boasted,  **  and  legions  will  spring  out 

spafn.*''^      ^\  *^^  ^^^^^  ^^^  ^^"    ^^^  ^^^  ^ad  reckoned 
without   Caesar,  who  took  his   enemies  com- 
pletely by  surprise  by  his  marvellous  energy  and  rapidity 
of  movement.    Into  the  five  years  left  him  to  live  he 
compressed    the    events    of    a    well-crowded     lifetime. 
Pompey  evacuated  Rome  and   retreated  into  Greece  to 
gam  time,  and  Caesar,  who  had  crossed  the  Rubicon, 
disregarding  him  for  the  present,  went  to  Spain,  crushed 
the  Senatorial  armies  at  Ilerda,  returned  to  Rome,  was 
proclaimed  Dictator,  and,  among  other  measures,  gave 
the  coveted  franchise  to  the  Gauls  beyond  the  Po,  thus 
at  last  making  the  whole  population  of  Italy  Roman 
citizens  from  the  Alps  to  Rhegium. 

Secure  in  the  possession  of  Italy,  Gaul,  and  Spain,  he 
crossed  into  Greece  with   eleven  legions   to  seek   out 


Pompey's  main  Senatorial  army,  and,  after  a  reverse 
and    retreat,    annihilated    it    at    Pharsalus    (48    b.c). 
Pompey  himself  fled  to  Egypt,  where  he  was  pharsaius, 
treacherously  murdered   by  the  young  king.  Egypt,  and 
Caesar   followed,  regulated   Egyptian   affairs,  ^^®^*^*- 
allowing  Ptolemy  and  Cleopatra  to  reign  under  Roman 
suzerainty,   very  nearly  lost    his   life   in    a    revolt    at 
Alexandria,  in  which  the  famous  library  was  burnt  down, 
crushed  Pharnaces  at  Zela,  and  set  things  in  order  in 
the  East,  and   then  returned   to  Rome,  where  in  his 
absence  he  had  been  appointed  Dictator  for  an  indefinite 
period.   Consul    for    five    years,   and   Tribune    for  life 
(47  B.C.) ! 

But  there  was  still  Africa.    Before  the  year  was  out, 
Caesar,  whom  nothing  seemed  to  daunt  or  tire,  landed 
at  Adrumetum,  in  modern  Tunisia,  with  only 
three  thousand  men,  skirmished  and  waited  ^^^P^^^' 
for  reinforcements,  and   in   the   following  April   wiped 
out  the  enemy's  fourteen  legions  at  Thapsus  (46  b.c). 

In  July  he  was  back  in  Rome,  was  made  Dictator  for 
ten  years,  reformed  the  calendar  and  provincial  The 
government,  and  went  once  more  to  Spain  to  Calendar, 
stamp  out  the  last  remnant  of  the  Senatorial  army  which 
was  again  raising  its  head  in  that  country.    The  desperate 
battle  of  Munda,  where  Caesar,  who  had  "  often 
fought  for  victory,  had  to  fight  for  very  exist- 
ence," as  he  himself  said,  put  an   end  to  all  armed 
opposition,  and  the  victor  returned  to  Rome  undisputed 
master  of  the  world.    He  was  given  the  Consulship  for 
ten  years,  the  title  of  *'  Father  of  his  Country,"  a  golden 
chair,  and  a  crown  of  laurel.    The  month  of  his  birth  was 
called  Julius  (July)  in  his  honour,  his  statue  was  placed 
among  those  of  the  gods,  he  was  made  Dictator  for  life, 
and  given  the  title  of  "  Imperator  "  for  himself  and  his 
heirs  for  ever. 


Munda. 


876 


THE  ANCIENT  WOELD 


lu  a  word,  the  democratic  champion  had  become  an 
Emperor  with  absolute  powers.     It   might,  seem   that 

-  Em ""  "  ^^^^'  ^^^^  mistress  of  the  world,  herself  bowed 
""P^'^'-  the  neck  beneath  *'  the  proud  foot  of  a  con- 
queror," and  had  paid  for  empire  with  her  freedom. 
But  the  mcubus  of  a  corrupt,  obstinate,  and  incurably 
degenerate  oligarchy  had  been  shaken  off  for  ever,  and  in 
Its  place  sat  justice  and  efficiency,  and,  though  an  autocrat 
overshadowed  and  overruled  all,  his  autocracy  was  not 
only  not  resented  but  was  welcomed  by  the  great  mass 
of  the  nation.  After  all,  the  Autocrat  was  the  people's 
champion,  and  his  undisputed  power  their  own  gift  He 
was  the  man  they  -  delighted  to  honour,"  and  his  throne 
was  the  visible  proof  of  their  triumph.  In  the  excite- 
ment of  their  liberation,  the  loss  of  their  liberty  passed 
unnoticed. 

Not  so,  however,  with  the  vanquished  party.  Unlike 
Sulla,  Caesar  allowed  no  act  of  spite  to  stain  his  laurels. 
Opposition.  ^^^^^'^  ^^^'^s  "0  proscription ;  all  were  pardoned 
and  trusted.  But  they  were  irreconcilable. 
The  good  old  days  "  of  privilege,  plunder,  and  mis- 
government  were  gone  for  ever,  and  their  occupation  was 
gone:  so  the  oligarchs  vowed  revenge.  They  were 
enraged  at  his  new-created  pre-eminence  and  their  own 
paltry  insignificance,  and  began  to  throw  out  dark  hints. 

Why,  man,  he  doth  bestride  the  narrow  world,* 
Like  a  Colossus  ;  and  we  petty  men 
Walk  under  his  huge  legs,  and  peep  about 
To  find  ourselves  dishonourable  graves. 
Men  at  some  time  are  masters  of  their  fates ; 
The  fault,  dear  Brutus,  is  not  in  our  stars, 
But  in  ourselves,  that  we  are  underlings.  ' 

^    The  murmurs  ripened  into  conspiracy.     In  less  than 
SIX  months  from  the  battle  of  Munda,  the  greatest  of  the 

♦  Julius  Caesar,  act  i.  sc.  2. 


THE  PMCE  OP  EMPIRE 


377 


Bomans  lay  dead  at  the  foot  of  Pompey's  statue  in 
the  Senate,  foully  pierced  with  three  and  twenty  wounds 
by  cowards,  many  of  whom  had  been  favoured  Caesar 
objects  of  his  constant  generosity  (44  b.c).  "^^^^dered. 
Indefatigable  as  ever,  he  was  in  the  thick  of  preparations 
for  a  great  expedition  to  the  East  against  the  Parthians, 
when  he  was  thus  ruthlessly  cut  off  at  the  age  of  fifty- 
six.  . 

Great  Caesar  fell ; 
Oh  what  a  fall  was  there  1 

The  murder  once  more  let  loose  the  dogs  of  civil  war, 
which  Caesar's  triumph  had  chained  up.    Seventeen  years 
later  (27  b.c.)  his  great-nephew  ascended  the  caesar 
same  throne  with  the  title  "  Augustus,"  and  justified 
the    sound    of    strife    ceased.      The    world  ^y^^^^*^- 
acquiesced  because  it  had  at  last  realized  that  the  great 
Julius  was  right;  the  form  of  government  he  devised 
Vfus  the  only  form  possible  in  that  age.     Only  he  was  in 
advance  of  his  time,  and  died  a  martyr.     He  too,  no  less 
than  Rome,  had  paid  the  price  of  empire,  but  he  had 
paid  it  with  his  life. 


INDEX 


i 


t 


A 

Abraham,  12,  31,  37-39,  47,  49,  53 
Accad,  28,  30,  82 
Achaeans,  107,  140 

Achilles,  116,  118,  121-127 
"  Achilles  and  Briseis  "  (picture), 
276 

Aegates  islands,  323 

Aegeans,  73-77,  118,  137 

Aegospotami,  263 

Aegyptus,  144 

Aeneas,  158,  162 

Aeolian  colonies,  149 

Aeolus,  133 

Aeschylus,  233,  241,  281 

Aetolian  League,  340 

Agamemnon,  128 

Agathocles,  320 

Agrarian  laws,  364 

Ahab,  210 

Ahmes,  GO 

Ahriman,  88 

Ahura-Mazda,  88 

Ajax,  121,  128 

Akhetaton,  65 

Akhnaton,  86,  87,  112.  See  also 
Amenhotep  IV. 

Akkad.     See  Accad. 

Alba  Longa,  164 

Alcibiades,  256 

Alesia,  355-357 

Alexander,  107,  303  foil.;  cha- 
racter, 312;  death,  315;  effect 
of  conquests,  315 


»> 
I) 


Alexandria,  309 

Allat,  36 

Allia,  351 

Alps,  crossed  by  Hannibal,  326  foil. 

Altaku,  212 

Alyattes,  219 

Amasis,  181 

Amenemhat  III.,  6,  48 

Amenhotep  I.,  60 
II.,  61 
III.,  62 

IV.,  62  foil.    See  also 
Akhnaton. 

Ammurabi.     See  Hammurabi. 

Amon,  63 

Amon-Ra,  10 

Amraphel.     See  Hammurabi. 

Amu,  49 

Anacharsis,  178 

Angro-Mainyus,  88 

Antigone,  283 

Antiochus  HI.,  "  the  Great,"  340 
„         IV.,  Epiphanes,  344 

Antiquity  of  Babylon,  22,  23 

„  „     Egypt,  1,  2,  5 

Anpu,  71 
Anu,  26 
Apepi,  56,  60 
Appius  Claudius,  200 
Ararat,  26 
Arbela,  309 

Arch,  Principle  of  the,  50 
Archelaus,  347 
Arginusae,  263 
Ariadne,  77 


379 


380 


INDEX 


INDEX 


381 


I 


Arion,  178 

Ariovistus,  353 

Aristagoras,  226 

Aristoderaus,  148 

Aristogeiton,  185 

Aristomachus,  148 

Aristophanes,  289 

Ark  (Noah's),  25  ;  (Sargina's),  30 

Armenia,  25,  347 

Art,  Greek,  268 

Artaphernes,  229 

Artemisiura,  240 

Aryans,  169 

Asia  Minor,  149 

Asmonaeans,  345 

Asoka,  319 

Assyria,  33,  34,  82,  86,  210,  211, 

215 ;  (Art)  34 
Astyages,  219 
Athens,  182,   196,  228,  247,    249, 

347 
Athens  and  Rome  compared,  197 
Athos,  229 
A  ton,  64  foil. 
Atreus,  75 
Augustus,  377 
Avaris,  55,  56,  105 


Baal,  56 

Bahylon,  23,  85,  215,  218,  222 

Babylonia,  33,  34,  211 

Bactria,  309,  311 

Bagdad,  24 

Bar,  102 

Bata,  71 

Bath-sheba,  81 

•*  Bee-hive  "  tombs,  75 

"Bekos"  story,  4 

B^rard,  137 

Bessus,  310 

Brahmans,  206 

Bremius,  351 


Britain,  320,  353 

Buccphala,  312 

Bucephalus,  304 

Buddha,    206;     (ministry),    207; 

(sayings),  209 
Buddhism,  208,  209 
Burial  (Egyptian),  11 
Burnaburiash,  85 
Byrsa,  160 


0 

Cabira,  347 

Caesar,  373  foil.  See  Julius  Caesar. 

Calendar  (Roman),  375 

Calypso,  129 

Cambyses,  225 

Camillus,  351 

Canaan,  112,  113.    Sec  also  Pales- 
tine. 

Cannae,  331 

Capitoline  hill,  165 

Captives,  106 

Carchemish,  82 

Carthago,  155,  157,  160,  245,  246, 

801,  323,  335,  336 
Castes,  94 
Ceylon,  92 
Chaeronea,  300,  304 
Chaldaean  religion,  35 
Chandra-Gupta,  319 
Chedorlaomor,  32,  85 
Che-Hwang-Tc,  319 
Cheops,  18,  19,  20 
Chephren,  19,  20 
Chin  dynasty,  95,  318 
China,  94-98,  202-206 

„      Great  Wall  of,  319 
Chnumhetep,  49 
Chou  dynasty,  202 
Cicones,  131 
Cilician  Gates,  307 
Cilicians,  82 
Cimbrians,  352 


Cimon,  244,  298 
Circe,  134 
Civil  War,  368,  374 
Cleisthenes,  195-197 
Cleomenes,  227 
Cleopatra,  375 

Cleopatra's  Needle,  1,  2,  6,  19 
Clitus,  306 
Cnossus,  74 
Colonies,  149,  152,  153 
Colour  in  sculpture  and  architec- 
ture, 270 
Confucius,  203;  (principles),  204; 

(character),  205  ;  (sayings),  205 
Conon,  263 
Contact      between     Egypt     and 

Greece,  217 
Contact      between     Greece    and 

China,  318 
Contact     between     Greece    and 

Rome,  167 
Contact  between  Rome  and  Sicily, 

245 
Contact  between  Rome  and  the 

East,  339 
Corcyra,  179,  249 
Corinth,  179,  249,  343 
Corinthian  War,  264 
Coroneia,  248 
Corrupt  government  of  the  Senate, 

363 
Crassus,  348,  370 
Cretans,  142 
Crete,  73  foil.,  142 
Crimissus,  302 
Croesus,  222 
Croton,  154,  309 
Cunaxa,  299,  305 
Customs   of    Egyptians,   7,   8,   9, 

10 
Cyaxares,  218 
Cyclops,  132 
Cydnus,  307 
Cylon,  182 
Cynoscephalae,  341 


Cypselus,  177 

Cyrus    the    Great,  83,   219  foil., 
223,  225 


Dahshur,  15 

Danae,  145 

Danaides,  144 

Danaus,  144,  150 

Daphnae,  106 

Darius,  48,  226,  229 

„      Codomannus,  306  foil.  • 

"  Dark  Ages  "  of  Egypt,  54 

Datis,  229 

David,  52,  67,  114,  142 

Dead,  Book  of  the,  12 

Deborah,  114 

Debt,  193,  194 

Dedi,  51 

Delos,  Confederacy  of,  247 

Delphi,  351 

Demes,  196 

Demetrius  of  Pharos,  339 

Democracy,  197,  292,  293 

Demosthenes  (the  General),  259 
„  (the  Orator),  292 

Dido,  157 

Diodorus  Siculus,  27,  104 

Dionysius  (the  Phocaean),  228 
„  (the  Elder),  301 

„  (the  Younger),  302 

Discontent  in  Rome,  363 

Disunion    of    Greece,    171,    237, 
265 

Dodecarchy,  217 

Dorian  colonies,  149 

Dorians,  141  foil. 

Draco,  192 

Drama  (Athenian),  281 

Drusus,  367 

Dynasties  (Egyptian)  I.,  20 
II.-IV.,  20 
V.-XL,  21 


II 


II 


882 


INDEX 


INDEX 


383 


E 


Ecbatana,  311,  314 

Eden,  23 

Egesta,  256 

Egypt,  2,  214,  298 

Egyptians,  1,  2,  5-21;  customs, 
7-10;  religion,  10-13;  literature, 
14  ;  architecture,  14-21 ;  writing, 
9 ;  priests,  8 

Egyptian  Tales,  51-52,  70-72 

Elam,  86 

Elders,  172 

Embalming,  11,  12 

Epaminondas,  265 

Ephialtes,  239 

Epidamnus,  249 

Equites,  365 

Erech,  28 
Esarhaddon,  214 
Etana,  36 
Ethiopia,  61,  106 
Etruscans,  170 
Eumenes,  342 
Euphrates,  22,  24,  25,  33 
Euripides,  286 
Euryraedon,  244,298 
Evander,  162 
Ezra,  298 

F 

Fabius  (Cunctator),  331 

Fact  and  Fiction,  150,  160,  168 

Factions  in  Attica,  182,  193 

Fayoura,  15 

Feudalism  in  Egypt^  106. 

Flood,  the,  25 

(Chaldaean  version),  26,  27 
Fluvial  civilization,  3 
Foreigners  in  Egypt,  106 
"  Four  hundred,  The,"  261 
Franchise,  368 
Fuhi,  95 

Fusion  of  Greeks  and  Persians, 
313 


G 


Gallia  Comata,  357 

,,      Narbonensis,  352 
Oauls,  350-357 
Gaza,  308 
Gelo,  245 
Gergovia,  355 
Gilgamesh,  26 
Glaucia,  367 
"  Golden  Rule,"  206 
Goshen,  56 

Government,  early,  in  Greece,  172 
M  „      in  China,  205 

Gracchus,  Tiberius,  364 

„         Gains,  365 
Granicus,  306 
Great  Wall  of  China,  319 
Greece,    171    (Roman   Province), 

343 
Greeks  in  Asia,  223 

„       and  Persians,  313 
„     ,  real  greatness  of,  267 
„     ,  patriotism  of,  172 
Guerilla  warfare,  354 
Gyges,  222 
Gylippus,  258 


H 

Habiri,  68 

Hamilcar  Barca,  323 
Hammurabi,  32,  39,  40  foil.,  53, 
112.     Laws,  40-45,   111,    112; 
Letters,  46  ;  Empire,  85 
Hannibal,  324;  crosses  the  Alps, 
326-328 ;  avoids  Rome,  331, 333  ; 
death,  334;    causes  of  failure, 
334 
Harmodius,  185 
Hasdrubal,  324 
Hatasu,  60 
Hatshetsup,  60 
Hattusil,  83 
Hawara,  15 


Hebrews,  68  (in  Egypt),  108 

Hector,  116 

Helen,  118 

Heliopolis,  57,  63 

Hellas,  140 

Hellen,  151 

HeUenes,  140,  151 

Helvetii,  353 

Hephaestion,  314 

Heracleidae,  143,  148 

Heracles,  145,  150 

**  Hermes  "  of  Praxiteles,  272 

Hermocrates,  302 

Herodotus,  4,  8,  17, 104,  225,  292 

Herostratus,  303 

Hesiod,  278 

Hezekiah,  213 

Hiero  (Tyrant),  245 
„      (King),  321,  322 

Himera,  245 

Hindu  Rush,  309 

Hipparchus ,  184 

Hippias,  184,  229,  233 

Hissarlik,  74,  138 

Hit,  24 

Hittites,  55,  68,  73,  77-83  ;  script, 
79  ;  sculpture,  79 ;  architecture, 
81 ;  battle  with  Rameses  II.,  101 

Hiung-nu,  97 

Holophernes,  300 

Hophra,  216 

Hordedef,  51 

Horemheb,  70,  99 

Horus,  11 

Huang-ti,  96 

Huns,  97 

Hyksos,  55-58,  59,  105,  107 

Hyllus,  146 


Ilerda,  374 
Iliad,  117,  118 
Illahun,  15,  17 


lUyrians,  338 

India,  206-209 

Invasions,  Persian,  229  foil. 

lonians,  149 

Ionic  Revolt,  226 

Iphicrates,  264 

Ipsus,  318 

Isis,  11 

Israel,  115,  210 

Issus,  307 

Ithaca,  134 


J 


Jael,  114 
Janiculum,  166 
Jehu,  211 
Jericho,  113 
Jerusalem,  213,  216 
Jews,  223,  344 
Jezebel,  211 
Joppa,  71 
Joseph,  56, 107 
Josiah,  215,  217 
Judah,  210,  216 
Judas  Maccabaeus,  345 
"Judges,"  32,  113,  160 
Judith,  300 
Jugurtha,  350 

Julius  Caesar,  348,  353  foil.,  371, 
373,  376,  377 


Kadesh,  83, 100 
Kahun,  17,  50 
Karnak,  100 
Kassites,  86 
Katesh,  101 
Keats,  135 
Keftiu,  76,  142 
Khafra,  19,  20 
Kheta,  82,  101 
Khetasar,  101 


II 


884 

Khufu,  18,  19,  20 
Kings,  early,  172 
Knights,  365 
Kudur-lagamar,  32,  85 


Labyrinth,  48,  76 

Lachish,  212 

Laestrygonians,  133,  137 

Lagash,  29 

Lamachus,  256 

Landowners,  196 

Lanka,  92 

Laomedon,  117 

Latin  League,  166,  301 

Latiniis,  162 

Lavinia,  163 

Laviuium,  164 

Laws  of  Hammurabi,  41 

Legends,  143  foil. 

Leonidas,  238 

Libyans,  107 

Literature,  Greek,  277,  296 

Lot,  53 

Lucnllus,  347 

Lugal-zaggisi,  30 

Lycians,  82,  107 

Lycurgus,  189  foil. 

Lydia,  222 

Lysander,  262 

Lysippus,  273 

M 

Maccabees,  345 
Tklacedonia,  266,  300 
Macedonian  Wars,  340 
Magic,  36 

Magna  Graecia,  154 
Magnesia,  342 
Mago,  329 
Mahabharata,  90 
Mamertini,  321 
Manetho,  20,  104 


INDEX 


Marathon,  230,  232 
Mardonius,  229,  235,  243 
Marius,  366,  368 
Massinissa,  335 
Mazdeism,  88-90 
Medea,  287 
Medes,  215,  218 
Medum,  5,  15 
Megara,  179 
Megiddo,  215 
Melos,  255 
Memnon,  306 
Mena,  20 

Menelaus,  117, 119 
Mencs,  20 
Menkaura,  19,  20 
Mentu,  103 

Merenptah,  107,  110,  140 
Messana,  321 
Metaurus,  333 
Milo,  255,  273 
Miltiades,  231,  244,  247 
Minoan,  74,  137 
Minos,  76 
Minotaur,  76 
Mitanni,  62 
Mithridatcs,  346  foil. 
Moeris,  Lake,  48 
Monarchy,  173,  189, 197 
Monotheism,  65  foU. 
Moses,  2,  72, 109-112,  169 
!Mummy,  12 
Munda,  375,  376 
Mycale,  244 
Mycenae,  74,  137 
Mycerinus,  19,  20 
Mylae,  323 
Mythology,  143  foil. 


INDEX 


385 


N 


Nagada,  20 
Nannar,  38 
Narara-Sin,  31 
Napoleon,  229 


Naupactus,  148,  252,  253 

Nausicaa,!130 

Nearchus,  315 

Nebo,  36 

Nebuchadnezzar,  33,  215 

Necho,  217 

Nemesis,  234,  360 

Nicaea,  312 

Nicias,  256 

Nile,  33 

Nimrod,  25,  28 

Nineveh,  28,  30,  33 

Ninus,  27 

Nirvana,  208 

Noah,  25 

0 

Odysseus,  121, 129  foil. 
Odyssey,  129  foil. 
Oedipus,  285 
Old  Empire,  63 
Oligarchy,  173,  174,  197 
Olynthian  League,  266,  300 
On,  2,  57,  63 
Ormuzd,  88 
Osarsiph,  105 
Osiris,  10,  11,  13 
Oxylus,  148,  151 
Ozymandias,  104 


Painting  (Greek),  273 

Palatine,  162 

Palestine,  31,  52,  69,  111,  113, 115, 

210 
Panku,  95 
Paris,  117,  119,  128 
Parmenio,  309 
Parthenon,  260 
Parthians,  377 
Patriarchs,  38  foil. 
Patricians,  198 


Patriotism,  172 
Patroclus,  122 
Pausanias,  243,  247 
Peisistratus,  182, 268 
Peloponnesian  War,  248 
Pelops,  146 
Pentaur,  101 
Periander,  166,  177 
Pericles,  250 
Pergamus,  342 
Perseus,  145 
Perseus  (King),  342 
Persepolis,  310 
Persia,  83,  87,  298,  299 
Petrie,  50,  51,  113 
Phalanx,  341,  343 
Phalaris,  180 
Pharnaces,  375 
Pharsalus,  375 
Pheidias,  271 
Pheidippides,  231 
Philip  II.  of  Macedon,  300 
Phoenicians,  155-157 
Phormio,  252 
Phrygians,  4 
Pindar,  280,  305 
Pirates,  132, 338 
Pisiris,  82 

Plataea,  231,  243,  250,  251 
Plato,  292 
Plebeians,  198 
Polemarch,  231 
Polycleitus,  272 
Polycrates,  180-182 
Polyphemus,  132 
Pompeii  (Egjrptian),  50 
Pompey,  347,  348,  370,  373 
Pontus,  346 
Praxiteles,  272 
Priam,  117 

Priests  of  Amon,  63-65 
Psalm  of  Akhnaton,  67 
Pseudo-Smerdis,  225 
Ptah,  10 
Punic  Wars,  321 

2c 


I 


886 

Pyramids,  2,  14-21 
Pyrrhus,  338 
Pytheas,  320 


INDEX 


INDEX 


387 


Q 


Quirinus,  165 


B 


Ra,  10,  63 
Rama,  92 
Ramayana,  92 
Rameses  I.,  100 

„      ir.,  82,  99,  100 
Raphia,  214 
Red  Sea,  99,  105 

Reform  movement  iu  Rome,  364 
373 

Reformation  of  Akhnaton,  64 
Refuge,  Cities  of,  112 
Regifugium,  186,  197 
Rehoboam,  113 
Religion  (Chaldaean),  35 
Remus,  164 

Rhadamantiius,  76 

Rhampsinitus,  17 

Rig- Veda,  90 

Rivers,  3 

Roma  Quadrata,  165 

Rome,  155,  161,  197, 301,  338,  358 

Roxana,  311 

Rubicon,  374 


S 


Sabines,  165,  109 
Sabaco,  214 
Sacred  War,  266 
Saguntum,  325 
Salamis,  241 
Sallust,  359 
Samaria,  33,  212,  216 
Samsuditana,  82 
Samuel,  114 


Sandrocottus,  319 
Sanehat,  52 
Sappho,  278-280 
Sarcophagus,  12,  15 
Sardinians,  107 
Sardis,  223,  228 
Sargina,  23,  30,  32 
Sargon  I.,  23,  30,  32 
Sargon  II.,  212 
Saturninus,  367 
Saul,  114 

Scipio  Africanus  Major,  333,  342 
Minor,  336,  349 
Scopas,  272 
Sculpture  (Greek),  271 
Scythians,  100,  215,  218 
Sea-power,  180,  260,  322,  324 
Seloucids,  318,  344,  346 
Seleucus,  318 
Senate  (Roman),  301 

„      corruption  of,  361 
Seneferu,  20,  52 
Sennacherib,  212 
Sentinum,  351 
Sepharvaim,  27 
Sequenenre  III.,  00 
Sertorius,  349 
Ser\'ius  Tullius,  166 
Sesostris,  99,  100,  107 
Seti,  100 
Shabaka,  214 
Shalmaneser  I.,  86,  211 

II.,  211 
Shamashnapishtim,  26 
Shamesh,  36 
Shi-King,  98 

"  Shipwrecked  Sailor,"  52 
Shishak,  113,  214 
Shon-nung,  96 
Shu-king,  97 
Shun, 96 
Shurippak,  26 
Shushan,  227 
Sicilian  Expedition,  250 
Sicilians,  107 


Sidon,  156 

Sinai,  31,  48 

Sippara,  27 

Sita,  92 

Slaves,  112 

Smerdis,  225 

So,  214 

Social  War,  266 

Sodom,  53 

Solar  Disk,  64 

Solomon,  81,  115 

Solon,  192-195 

Sophocles,  283 

Spain,  349 

Sparta,  189 

Spartan  caution,  227,  230 

Spartan  supremacy,  264 

Subbiluliuma,  82 

Suffetes,  171 

SuUa,  347,  368 

Sumerians,  29 

Susa,  227 

Sutlej.  312 

Sybaris,  154 

Syracuse,  245,  257 

Syria,  31, 68,  69,  111,  210,  308,  343 


T 


Tahuti,  73 

"  Taking  of  Joppa,"  71 

Tales,  Egyptian,  51,  52,  70-72 

Tanais,  106 

Tanis,  55 

Tarentum,  338 

Tarquinius  Priscus,  166 

,,  Superbus,  167 

Tarsus,  307 
Telamon,  351 
Tel-el-Amarna,  65,  68,  87 
Tel-el-Yehudiyeh,  55 
"  Ten  Thousand,  the,"  299 
Teuta,  338 
Teutons,  352 


>» 


>> 


Thapsus,  375 

Theagenes,  179 

Thebans,  250 

Theban  supremacy,  265 

Thebes  (Greece),  305 
n      (Egypt),  59 

Themistocles,  240,  247 

Thermopylae,  238,  342 

Thero,  245 

Theseus,  77 

Thothmes  I.,  60 
II.,  60 

III.,  6,  19,  61,  71 
IV.,  61 

Thrasybulus,  180 

"  Three  Emperors,"  95 

Thucydides,  259,  222 

Thule,  320 

Ticinus,  328 

Tiglath-pileser  I.,  82,  211 
III.,  211 

Tigranes,  347 

Tigris,  27 

Timocracy,  194 

Timocrates,  264 

Timoleon,  302 

Tiryns,  74,  137 

Tiy,  224 

Tomyris,  224 

Trade-routes,  115 

Trasimenus,  330 

Treachery,  239 

Trebia,  328 

Tribes,  196 

Tribunes,  198,  369,  370 

Triumvirate,  348,  371 

Trojan  War,  116  foil.,  139 

Troy,  74,  116,  137 

Truth  of  old  stories,  136,  137  foil., 

150,  160,  168 
Turnus,  163 
Tutankhaton,  69 
Twelve  Tables,  199 
•'  Two  Brothers,"  tale  of,  71 
Tyranny  in  Rome,  199,  200 


388 


INDEX 


Tyrants,  174-177,  184,   186,   188, 

268 
Tyre,  156,  308 
Tyrrhenians,  107 

U 

Union,  lack  of,  in  Greece,  171, 237, 

265 
Unity  of  world,  216,  297 
Ur,  23,  30,  31,  38 
Uranus,  143 
Uriah,  81 
Ur-nina,  29,  30 
Usertesen  II.,  49 


Valeria-Horatia,  Lex,  201 
Vaphio,  75 
Vedas,  90-93 
Veneti,  353 
**  Venus  of  Milo,"  273 
Vercingetorix,  354 
Virginia,  200 
Viriathus,  349 


W 

War-chariots,  105 
War,  prisoners  of,  106 
"  Wooden  Horse,"  116,  127 
"  Wooden  Walls,"  241 


X 


Xanthippus,  323 
Xerxes,  235-237 
Xisuthros,  27 


Yau,  96 

Yu,  97 


Zaleucus,  191 
Zama,  333 
Zarathustra,  87 
Zela,  375 
Zoroaster,  87 


i 


THE    END 


FEINTED   BT    WILLIAM  CLOWES  AND  SONS.   LIMITED,   LONDON   AND   BECCLES. 


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